Endocrine glands are responsible for the production of hormones necessary to regulate metabolic processes, the development and activity of a growing organism and maintain proper metabolism.

Characteristics of the glands

The classification of organs that make up this system are the so-called human glands:

• thyroid gland;
• testes and ovaries;
• pituitary;
• hypothalamus;
• parathyroid organs;
• pancreatic islets.

During pregnancy, the placenta becomes an endocrine gland.

Exocrine glands play an important role in the functioning of the human body, secreting secretions to the surface. Exocrine glands include:

• sweat;
• pancreas;
• dairy;
• sebaceous;
• Bartolinova;
• prostatic

General classification of endocrine organs:

The main endocrine gland that influences other endocrine glands and controls their functioning. Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland affect metabolic processes in the body. The hypothalamus suppresses or activates the function of the pituitary gland.

• Parathyroid formations

The parathyroid organ controls the ratio of phosphate and calcium in the blood. It consists of four paired formations located near the thyroid gland. These paired endocrine glands synthesize parathyroid hormone.

The butterfly-shaped organ synthesizes thyroid hormones and belongs to the endocrine system, just like the pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and parathyroid glands.

• Pancreas

The endocrine function of the pancreas is to synthesize insulin.

• Testicles and ovaries

The ovaries are the female reproductive glands that produce the hormones estrogen, relaxin and progesterone in the follicles.

• The testes or testes are male gonads that secrete androgens and estrogens. Androgens are necessary for the development of male puberty; in addition, the substances are responsible for the activity of the heart muscle, immunity, ability to work, and protein metabolism.
• Adrenal glands

The organ secretes glucocorticoid substances necessary for proper carbohydrate and mineral metabolism. An increase in carbohydrate levels leads to diabetes; a violation of mineral metabolism threatens kidney damage and high blood pressure.

Hormones synthesized by the endocrine system

The general activity of the endocrine glands, diseases and secreted substances is studied by the science of endocrinology.

The endocrine glands and their hormones are inextricably linked with the human nervous system, which is why its common name is the neuroendocrine system.

Activity of the endocrine system in the body:

• The glands secrete substances necessary for life, called hormones.
• Hormones are transported to the right points.
• Organs take in hormones.

What hormones are synthesized by the endocrine glands, general classification:

General characteristics of hormones:

• High biological activity.
• Impact at a distance.
• Specificity and selectivity.

The functioning of internal organs is supported at a distance by a small amount of hormones in the blood. Target organs receive the signal, transform and change in accordance with the received signal.

Pathologies associated with endocrine glands

Disruption of the endocrine glands is associated with intoxication, mechanical injuries to the glands, lack of minerals and other substances, stress and infectious diseases.

Characteristics of pathologies of the endocrine glands:

Disturbances in the neuroendocrine system lead to problems with the heart, gastrointestinal tract, and joint diseases.

Therapy for diseases of the endocrine glands

Treatment is selected taking into account the severity of the pathological process, the patient’s age, medical history and physiological characteristics of the patient’s body.

Characteristics of therapy methods:

• Drug therapy necessary to normalize the functioning of all organs. For this purpose, synthetic hormones are used, as well as substances that stimulate or suppress the activity of endocrine organs.
• Therapy with antibiotics that relieve tissue inflammation.
• Irradiation is used to destroy cancer formations.
• Treatment with radioactive iodine, which destroys cancer cells and overgrown thyroid tissue.
• Resection.
• A diet that includes foods necessary to treat a specific disease.

Pregnancy and the work of the endocrine glands

During pregnancy, the endocrine system and its organs are under particular stress, since the mother’s body is influenced by hormones produced by the placenta and the developing body of the child.

During pregnancy, the pituitary gland almost doubles in size and begins to intensively synthesize hormones that stimulate the functioning of other endocrine organs, except the genitals. The woman's genitals stop producing follicle-stimulating substance and ovulation stops. But more prolactin is produced. Prolactin increases breast sensitivity and prepares it for milk production.

The synthesis of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which is responsible for the functioning of the thyroid gland, increases, as well as ATG (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which affects the secretion of active substances of the adrenal glands.

A woman's pregnancy is dangerous due to disturbances and the occurrence of pathological conditions that have their own characteristics. The most commonly diagnosed endocrine disorders are diabetes mellitus and thyroid disease.

Characteristics of insulin-dependent diabetes in pregnant women:

• Lack of insulin, causing general disorders in all tissues and organs.
• Metabolic disorders.
• The presence of ketone, glucose, and glycosylated hemoglobin in the blood.

What symptoms of diabetes can be observed during pregnancy:

• skin itching;
• constant thirst;
• weight loss;
• vision problems;
• polyuria.

In order to identify metabolic disorders in pregnant women, an examination is carried out. Glucose is used for screening; the woman is asked to take fifty grams of glucose; the presence of diabetes mellitus is determined by the level of its manifestation in the blood.

This article turned out to be the largest on the blog. It reveals the basic concepts of the influence of the endocrine system and hormones produced by the endocrine glands on a person’s well-being and health. I propose to understand the issues of endocrine diseases that are unclear to many people and prevent serious disorders in your body.

This publication uses materials from articles posted on the Internet, materials from academic literature, the Guide to Endocrinology, lectures by Professor Park Jae-Woo and my personal experience as a reflexologist.

Endocrine glands or endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts. They release the products of their vital activity - hormones - into the internal environment of the body: into the blood, lymph, tissue fluid.

Hormones are organic substances of various chemical natures, have:

High biological activity, therefore produced in very small quantities;

The specificity of the action affects organs and tissues located far from the place of hormone production.

Entering the blood, they are distributed throughout the body and carry out humoral regulation of the functions of organs and tissues, stimulate or inhibit their work.

The endocrine glands, with the help of hormones, influence metabolic processes, growth, mental, physical, sexual development, the body’s adaptation to changing conditions of the external and internal environment, ensure homeostasis - the constancy of the most important physiological indicators, and also ensure the body’s response to stress.

If the activity of the endocrine glands is disrupted, endocrine diseases occur. Disorders can be associated with increased function of the gland, when an increased amount of the hormone is formed and released into the blood, or with decreased function, when a reduced amount of the hormone is formed and released into the blood.

The most important endocrine glands: pituitary gland, thyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, pineal gland. The hypothalamus, the subthalamic region of the diencephalon, also has an endocrine function.

The most important endocrine gland is the pituitary gland or the lower appendage of the brain, its mass is 0.5 g. It produces hormones that stimulate the functions of other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland has three lobes: anterior, middle and posterior. Each produces different hormones.

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces the following hormones.

A. Hormones that stimulate synthesis and secretion:

- thyroid gland – thyrotropins;

- adrenal glands - corticotropins;

- sex glands - gonadotropins;

B. Hormones affecting fat metabolism - lipotropins;

With a lack of hormones of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, there is an increased separation of water from the body with urine, dehydration, lack of skin pigmentation, and obesity. An excess of these hormones increases the activity of all endocrine glands.

B. Growth hormone is somatotropin.

It regulates the growth and development of the body at a young age, as well as protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism.

Excessive production of the hormone in childhood and adolescence causes gigantism, and in adults the disease is acromegaly, in which the ears, nose, lips, hands, and feet grow.

Lack of somatotropin in childhood leads to dwarfism. Body proportions and mental development remain normal.

Normally, the production of the hormone somatotropin is promoted by sufficient good sleep, especially in childhood. If you want to sleep, sleep. It promotes mental health and beauty. In adults, somatotropin during sleep will help eliminate muscle blocks and relax tense muscles.

Growth hormone is released during deep sleep, so a calm, quiet, comfortable place to sleep is very important.

The middle lobe of the pituitary gland produces a hormone that affects skin pigmentation - melanotropin.

Hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland increase the reabsorption of water in the kidneys, reduce urination (antidiuretic hormone), and increase the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus (oxytocin).

Oxytocin is a pleasure hormone that is produced from pleasant communication.

If a person has little oxytocin, then he has little contact, is irritable, and lacks sensual relationships and tenderness. Oxytocin stimulates the production of mother's milk and makes a woman feel tender towards her baby.

Body hugs, sexual contact, massage, and self-massage promote the production of oxytocin.

The pituitary gland also produces the hormone prolactin. Along with the female sex hormone progesterone, prolactin ensures the growth and development of the mammary glands and their production of milk during the feeding period.

This hormone is called stress. Its content increases with increased physical activity, overwork, and psychological trauma.

An increase in prolactin levels can cause mastopathy in women, as well as discomfort in the mammary glands during “critical days”, which can cause infertility. In men, excess levels of this hormone cause impotence.

Thyroid located in a person’s neck in front of the trachea on top of the thyroid cartilage. Consists of two lobes connected by an isthmus.

It produces the hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which regulate metabolism and increase the excitability of the nervous system.

With excessive production of thyroid hormones, Graves' disease occurs, metabolism and nervous system excitability increase, goiter and bulging eyes develop.

With a lack of hormones, the disease myxedema develops, metabolism decreases, nervous and mental activity is inhibited, lethargy, drowsiness, apathy develop, swelling of the face and legs, obesity appears, and in adolescence dwarfism and cretinism develop - delayed mental and physical development.

About thyroxine. This is an energy hormone.

Affects a person’s well-being and level of mood. Controls the functioning of vital organs - gall bladder, liver, kidneys.

Physical activity, gymnastics, breathing exercises, meditation, and eating iodine-containing foods: sea fish, seafood - shrimp, mussels, squid, seaweed - can increase the level of thyroxine.

Parathyroid glands. There are four of them. They are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. They produce parathyroid hormone, which regulates the exchange of calcium and phosphorus in the body.

With excess function of the glands, the release of calcium from the bones into the blood and the removal of calcium and phosphates from the body through the kidneys increases. In this case, muscle weakness develops, calcium and phosphorus can be deposited in the form of stones in the kidneys and urinary tract.

When the parathyroid glands are damaged and the level of calcium in the blood decreases, the excitability of the nervous system increases, cramps of all muscles appear, and death may occur from paralysis of the respiratory muscles.

Thymus gland (thymus). A small lymphoid organ located behind the upper part of the sternum in the mediastinum. Produces the hormones thymosin, thymopoietin and thymalin.

This is an endocrine gland, involved in lymphopoiesis - the formation of lymphocytes and immunological defense reactions, is the central organ of cellular immunity, and takes part in the regulation of humoral immunity.

In childhood, this gland forms immunity, so it is much more active than in adults. Pancreas located in the abdominal cavity below the stomach. In it except for digestive enzymes,

The hormones glucagon, insulin and somatostatin are produced. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels, breaks down glycogen, and releases glucose from the liver.

With an excess of glucagon, blood glucose levels increase and fat breakdown occurs. If there is a deficiency, the level of glucose in the blood decreases.

Insulin lowers blood glucose levels and moves glucose into the cell, where it is broken down to produce energy.

This supports the vital processes of the cell, glycogen synthesis, and fat deposition.

With insufficient insulin production, type 1 diabetes mellitus occurs, in which glucose levels rise and sugar may appear in the urine. Thirst, excessive urine production, and skin itching appear.

As the disease progresses, pain appears in the limbs, vision is impaired due to damage to the retina, appetite decreases, and kidney damage develops. The most severe complication of diabetes is diabetic coma.

With an excess of insulin, a hypoglycemic state may occur, accompanied by convulsions, loss of consciousness, and a hypoglycemic coma may develop. They are located in the upper part of the kidneys, above them. They have two layers: outer - cortical and inner - medulla.

Hormones of the cortical layer - corticoids (glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, sex hormones, aldosterone) regulate the exchange of mineral and organic substances, the release of sex hormones, and suppress allergic and inflammatory processes.

Excessive function of these hormones in youth leads to early puberty with rapid cessation of growth, and in adults – to disruption of the manifestation of secondary sexual characteristics

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With a lack of these hormones, bronze disease (Addisson's disease) occurs, manifested by a bronze skin tone reminiscent of a tan, weakness, weight loss, decreased appetite, decreased blood pressure, dizziness, fainting, and abdominal pain. Removal of the adrenal cortex or hemorrhage into these organs can lead to death due to the loss of large amounts of fluid - dehydration.

The adrenal hormones cortisol and aldosterone play a particularly important role.

Cortisol is produced in large quantities during stress. It triggers immune defense processes: protects against stress, activates the activity of the heart and brain.

With elevated cortisol levels, increased fat deposition occurs in the abdomen, back, and back of the neck.

A decrease in cortisol below normal impairs immunity, a person begins to get sick often, and acute adrenal insufficiency may develop.

At the same time, blood pressure sharply decreases, sweating, severe weakness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea appear, arrhythmia develops, urine output sharply decreases, consciousness is impaired, hallucinations, fainting, and coma occur. In this case, emergency hospitalization is necessary.

Aldosterone regulates water-salt metabolism, sodium and potassium levels in the blood, maintains sufficient levels of glucose in the blood, the formation and deposition of glycogen in the liver and muscles.

The last two functions of the adrenal glands are performed jointly with pancreatic hormones.

When these hormones enter the blood, a rapid heartbeat occurs, narrowing of blood vessels except those of the heart and brain, increased blood pressure, increased breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles to glucose, inhibition of intestinal motility, relaxation of the bronchial muscles, increased excitability of the receptors of the retina, auditory and vestibular apparatus . The body's strength is mobilized to endure stressful situations.

Adrenaline is the hormone of fear, danger and aggression. In these states Under the influence of adrenaline, a person is at the maximum of physical and mental abilities. An excess of adrenaline dulls the feeling of fear, a person becomes dangerous and aggressive.

People who have poor adrenaline production often give in to life's difficulties.

Adrenaline levels are increased by physical activity, sex, and black tea.

Calming infusions of medicinal herbs - motherwort herb, valerian root and rhizome - reduce adrenaline and aggression.

Norepinephrine is a hormone of relief and happiness. It neutralizes the fear hormone adrenaline. Norepinephrine provides relief, relaxes, and normalizes the psychological state after stress, when you want to breathe a sigh of relief “the worst is over.”

The production of norepinephrine is stimulated by the sound of the surf, contemplation of pictures of nature, the sea, distant mountains, beautiful landscapes, and listening to pleasant relaxing music.

Sex glands (gonads).

Testicles in men, allocate spermatozoa into the external environment, and sperm into the internal environment androgen hormone - testosterone.

It is necessary for the formation of the reproductive system in the embryo according to the male type, is responsible for the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, stimulates the development of the gonads, and the maturation of germ cells.

It also stimulates protein synthesis, and this accelerates the processes of growth, physical development, and increase in muscle mass. This is the most male hormone. It incites a man to aggression, forces him to hunt, kill prey, provide food, protect his family and home.

Thanks to testosterone, men grow a beard, their voice becomes deep, a bald spot appears on their head, and the ability to navigate in space develops. A man who has a deeper voice tends to be more sexually active.

In men who drink alcohol excessively and smokers, testosterone levels decrease. A natural decrease in testosterone levels in men occurs after 50 - 60 years, they become less aggressive, willingly babysit children and do housework.

Currently, many and even young men have low testosterone levels. This is due to the wrong lifestyle of men. Alcohol abuse, smoking, unbalanced diet, insufficient sleep, and insufficient physical activity create health problems and reduce testosterone levels.

Wherein:

- sexual function and libido decrease,

- muscle mass decreases,

- secondary sexual characteristics disappear: the low voice disappears, the man’s figure acquires rounded shapes,

- vitality decreases,

- fatigue, irritability appear,

- depression develops

- decreased ability to concentrate,

- memory and ability to memorize deteriorate,

- slowing down metabolic processes and deposition of adipose tissue.

Testosterone levels can be increased naturally.

1.Due to nutrition.

Minerals. The body must enter zinc in sufficient quantities, which is needed for the synthesis of testosterone.

Zinc is found in seafood (squid, mussels, shrimp), fish (salmon, trout, saury), nuts (walnuts, peanuts, pistachios, almonds), pumpkin and sunflower seeds. Other minerals involved in testosterone synthesis: selenium, magnesium, calcium.

Vitamins. They play an important role in the synthesis of testosterone vitamins C, E, F and B vitamins. They are found in citrus fruits, black currants, rose hips, fish oil, avocados, and nuts.

Food must contain proteins, fats, and carbohydrates as the basis of human nutrition. The diet of men should include lean meat and fats as a source of cholesterol, from which testosterone is synthesized.

2. To maintain normal testosterone levels, a man needs moderate physical activity– working out in the gym with weights, working in a summer cottage.

3. Sleep at least 7 - 8 hours in complete silence and darkness. Sex hormones are synthesized during deep sleep. Constant lack of sleep reduces testosterone levels in the blood.

Ovaries in women, secrete into the external environment of the egg, and hormones - estrogens and progestins - into the internal environment.

Estrogens include estradiol. This is the most female hormone.

It determines the regularity of the menstrual cycle, in girls it causes the formation of secondary sexual characteristics - enlargement of the mammary glands, growth of hair on the pubis and in the armpits corresponding to the female type, and the development of a wide female pelvis.

Estrogen prepares a girl for sexual life and motherhood.

Estrogen allows adult women to maintain youth, beauty, good skin condition and a positive attitude towards life.

This hormone creates a woman’s desire to nurse children and protect “her nest”.

Estrogen also improves memory. And during menopause, women have difficulty remembering.

Estrogen causes women to store fat and gain weight.

An indicator of high levels of estrogen in the blood of women and the ability to conceive a child is light hair color. After the birth of her first child, a woman's estrogen levels decrease and her hair darkens.

Many women face a lack of estrogen.

In childhood, this is the slow and insufficient development of the genital organs, mammary glands and skeleton.

In adolescents - a decrease in the size of the uterus and mammary glands, absence of menstruation.

In women of childbearing age: insomnia, mood swings, irregular periods, decreased libido, pain in the lower abdomen during menstruation, memory loss, decreased performance, changes in the skin - stretch marks, inflammation, decreased elasticity - hardening. Low estrogen levels can result in infertility.

Reasons for decreased estrogen levels: lack of vitamins, poor nutrition, sudden weight loss, menopause, long-term use of oral contraceptives.

The decision to increase estrogen levels must be made by a gynecologist.

How to increase estrogen levels?

In addition to taking hormonal medications and vitamin E, which are prescribed by a gynecologist, estrogen levels, if necessary, can be increased by certain foods that are included in the diet.

These include:

- cereals and legumes - soybeans, beans, peas, corn, barley, rye, millet;

- fats of animal origin, which are found in dairy products, meat, hard cheese, fish oil;

- vegetables - carrots, tomatoes, eggplants, cauliflower and Brussels sprouts;

- fruits – apples, dates, pomegranates;

- green tea;

- sage decoction.

It should be recalled that excess estrogen in a woman’s body can lead to headaches, nausea, and insomnia, so women should discuss estrogen treatment with their doctor.

Progestins include progesterone, a hormone that promotes the timely onset and normal development of pregnancy.

It is necessary for the attachment of a fertilized egg - an embryo - to the wall of the uterus. During pregnancy, it inhibits the maturation and ovulation of other follicles.

Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, placenta and adrenal glands. This is the hormone of parental instinct. Under its influence, a woman physically prepares for childbirth and experiences psychological changes. Progesterone prepares a woman's mammary glands to produce milk when the baby is born.

A woman's blood progesterone levels increase when she sees small children. This is a strong reaction. Progesterone is actively released even if a woman sees a soft toy (doll, teddy bear) similar to a baby.

Lack of progesterone can disrupt the female reproductive system and contribute to the development of gynecological diseases (endometriosis, uterine fibroids, mastopathy).

The main symptoms of progesterone deficiency: irritability and bad mood, headaches, breast swelling, swelling in the legs and face, irregular menstrual cycle.

Reasons for decreased progesterone levels: stress, poor nutrition, alcohol abuse and smoking, unfavorable environmental conditions.

To naturally increase progesterone levels, you should take B vitamins and vitamin E, and the microelement zinc.

The diet should include nuts, beef liver, rabbit meat, pumpkin and sunflower seeds, beans and wheat bran, soybeans, meat and fish products, eggs, cheese, red and black caviar.

During menopause, a woman's estrogen level decreases and the level of testosterone, which is produced by the adrenal glands in women, increases. Her behavior changes, she becomes more independent, decisive, shows organizational skills and a penchant for entrepreneurial activity. There may be growth of facial hair, a tendency to stress, and the likelihood of developing a stroke.

In the period from the 21st to the 28th day of the monthly cycle, the level of female hormones in the blood drops sharply, and “critical days” begin.

The following symptoms develop: irritability, increased fatigue, aggression, tearfulness, sleep disturbance, headaches, and depression. Acne, pain in the lower abdomen, “hardening” of the mammary glands, swelling in the legs and face, constipation, and increased blood pressure may appear. This is due to excess estrogen and lack of progesterone.

The pineal gland is a gland connected to the thalamus. Produces the hormones serotonin and melatonin. They regulate puberty and sleep duration.

Excess of them leads to premature puberty.

The lack of these hormones in youth leads to underdevelopment of the sex glands and secondary sexual characteristics.

Serotonin is the hormone of happiness. It improves mood, reduces stress, and causes a feeling of satisfaction and happiness. This is not just a hormone, it is a neurotransmitter - a transmitter of impulses between nerve cells of the human brain.

Under the influence of serotonin, human cognitive activity improves. It has a positive effect on motor activity and muscle tone, creating a feeling of uplifting mood. In combination with other hormones, serotonin allows a person to experience the full range of emotions from satisfaction to happiness and euphoria.

A lack of serotonin in the body causes decreased mood and depression.

In addition to mood, serotonin is responsible for self-control or emotional stability. It controls sensitivity to stress, that is, to the hormones adrenaline and norepinephrine.

In people with low serotonin levels, the slightest negative triggers a strong stress reaction.

People with high levels of serotonin dominate society.

To produce serotonin in the body you need:

- ensure the supply of the amino acid tryptophan, which is necessary for the synthesis of serotonin, with food;

- take carbohydrate foods, chocolate, cake, banana, which will increase the level of tryptophan in the blood and, accordingly, serotonin.

It is better to increase serotonin levels with moderate physical activity in the gym, use your favorite perfume, or take a warm bath with your favorite scent.

Melatonin is a sleep hormone, produced in the blood in the dark, regulates the sleep cycle, body biorhythms in the dark, increases appetite, promotes fat deposition.

Endorphin is a hormone of joy, a natural drug, similar in action to serotonin, the main substance that affects the body’s pain-relieving system. Reduces pain and brings a person to euphoria, affects mood, creating positive emotions.

Endorphin is produced in brain cells from betalipotropin, which is secreted by the pituitary gland in stressful situations and fights. At the same time, the pain from the blows is felt less.

Endorphin also:

- calms down,

- increases immunity,

- accelerates the process of tissue and bone restoration in case of fractures,

- increases blood flow to the brain and heart,

- restores blood pressure after stress,

- restores appetite,

- improves the functioning of the digestive system,

- promotes memorization of information received when reading books, watching TV shows, listening to lectures, talking with interlocutors.

Ways to increase endorphins:

- sports involving heavy loads (boxing, wrestling, barbell);

- creativity: painting pictures, composing music, knitting, weaving, wood carving, observing the creativity of others, visiting theaters, museums, art galleries;

- ultraviolet irradiation under the sun;

- laughter.

The production of endorphins is facilitated by power, fame, and the completion of a given task: writing an article, cooking, preparing firewood, etc. Any completed task or achievement of a goal increases endorphin in the body.

Sex promotes the production of endorphin, the hormone of joy and happiness.. Sex, like intense physical activity, improves blood supply to the body's organs.

With regular sexual activity, the body produces adrenaline and cortisol, which stimulate brain function and prevent migraines. Sex increases the ability to concentrate, stimulates attention, creative thinking, and prolongs life.

Dopamine is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone. Produced in brain cells, as well as in the adrenal medulla and other organs, such as the kidneys.

Dopamine is a biochemical precursor of norepinephrine and adrenaline. This is the “flight” hormone. Provides good functioning of all muscles, easy gait, feeling of lightness and speed.

If there is not enough dopamine in the body, the body becomes heavy and the legs move poorly.

Dopamine also:

- stimulates thinking,

- reduces the sensation of pain,

- gives a feeling of flight and bliss,

- influences the processes of motivation and learning,

- causes a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction.

Dopamine is produced during what a person perceives as a positive experience, eating tasty food, during sex, and pleasant bodily sensations. Dancing stimulates the production of dopamine.

The functioning of the endocrine glands, which form the endocrine system, is carried out in interaction with each other and with the nervous system. All information from the external and internal environment of the body enters the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain, where it is processed and analyzed. From them information signals are transmitted to hypothalamus

– subtubercular region of the diencephalon.

The hypothalamus produces regulatory hormones that enter the pituitary gland and through it exert their regulating effect on the work of the endocrine glands.

A review of the endocrine system has been completed, the main hormones and their effect on humans are reflected, signs of disorders in the endocrine system are indicated, and the main symptoms indicating certain endocrine diseases are given.

If you have discovered these signs and symptoms, then you should visit a therapist and endocrinologist, undergo an appropriate examination (blood test for the content of a particular hormone, ultrasound, computer examination of the problem gland) and treatment with the drugs prescribed by the attending physician.

Is it possible for a person himself in everyday life at home to influence the endocrine system to optimize its work and on individual endocrine glands in case of violations of their function?

Yes, you can. To do this, you can use the capabilities of reflexology.

There are special energy points on the hands - basic points (see pictures), which should be warmed up with lighted wormwood sticks using up and down pecking movements.

Energy points on the hand.

To warm up the points, you can use a high-grade, well-dried cigarette, the end of which is set on fire and the points are warmed up with pecking movements “up and down”, without touching the skin. You should not smoke in this case, as it is very harmful.

The base points can be stimulated with hot pepper seeds, which are glued to the base points with a patch and kept there until a feeling of warmth and redness of the skin appears.

Health, immunity and life expectancy largely depend on the state of the body's endocrine system. In order for the endocrine glands to work effectively, they should also be influenced by reflexology techniques.

You should find the points corresponding to the endocrine glands (see figure), massage them thoroughly, warm them using the above technique and place buckwheat, rose hip, and sea buckthorn seeds on them.

For those who suffer from arterial hypertension and cardiovascular diseases, effects on the points of the endocrine glands should not be carried out, as blood pressure may increase and heart disease may develop. attack.

Adrenalin enhances the absorption of oxygen by tissues, stimulates metabolism, increases systolic blood pressure, increases cardiac output and heart rate. It also stimulates the liver, resulting in an increase in blood sugar. Its amount increases under stress.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the activity of the adrenal cortex and its secretion of hormones, and also restores the thyroid gland, atrophied as a result of removal of the pituitary gland.

Vasopressin regulates water exchange in the body. It maintains the reabsorption of water in the renal tubules at a certain level, i.e., it reduces the amount of urine excreted. With its deficiency, on the contrary, urine output sharply increases, which can lead to diabetes insipidus. Vasopressin is one of the most important substances that determine water-salt metabolism in the body.

Glucagon increases blood sugar levels. When blood sugar levels decrease, glucagon levels increase, which leads to restoration of glucose levels.

Insulin reduces blood sugar. The most active metabolism of insulin occurs in liver cells, as well as in muscle and fat tissues, kidneys and placenta. A lack of this hormone in the body leads to the development of diabetes mellitus in a person.

Corticosteroid hormones regulate mineral metabolism, play an important role in the body’s adaptation to unfavorable conditions (cold, infection, emotional arousal, muscle work, etc.).

Lactogenic hormone(prolactin) is involved in the regulation of milk secretion.

Luteinizing hormone causes the growth of follicles, ovulation, and the formation of the corpus luteum in women, and the production of male sex hormone by testicular cells in men.

Luteotropic hormone stimulates the development of certain tissue in the gonads, the biosynthesis of sex hormones in both men and women, ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum. Its level in the body depends on the level of sex hormones.

Norepinephrine– a hormone closely related to adrenaline. But it increases both systolic and diastolic blood pressure, reduces cardiac output, and slows the heartbeat. Like adrenaline, it stimulates the liver, resulting in an increase in blood sugar. Its amount increases with bleeding and physical activity.

Oxytocin stimulates the contraction of the smooth muscles of the uterus and, to a lesser extent, the muscles of the intestines, gall and bladder, as well as the secretion of milk by the mammary glands.

Parathyroid hormone(parathyroid hormone) is involved in the regulation of calcium and phosphorus metabolism in the body.

Progesterone– a female sex hormone that plays an important role in the female reproductive cycle, prepares the uterus for egg implantation and subsequently creates conditions for the development of the embryo, and prevents (in the case of pregnancy) the production of new eggs in the ovaries.

Somatotropic hormone(a growth hormone) accelerates growth (in particular, stimulates the growth of long tubular bones of the limbs), participates in the regulation of the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. An excess of growth hormone in a child’s body leads to the development of gigantism, and its deficiency leads to dwarfism. In adults, its excess leads to acromegaly (enlargement of the hands, feet and face).

Testosterone– male sex hormone, which stimulates the development of secondary male sexual characteristics (beard growth, voice formation, muscle development), regulates spermatogenesis and sexual behavior.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone stimulates the synthesis of the main thyroid hormones, accelerates a number of metabolic processes in the gland, such as the transport and transformation of glucose, oxygen consumption.

Thyroxine and triiodothyronine – main iodine-containing thyroid hormones. They support energy and biosynthetic processes in the body.

Follicle stimulating hormone regulates the growth of follicles in the ovaries and spermatogenesis.

Estrogen – female sex hormone, which at puberty promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics, prepares the body for pregnancy, determines the possibility of egg fertilization, and, together with progesterone, ensures the normal course of pregnancy. In addition, estrogen affects metabolism.

LECTURE No. 5

Age-related endocrinology

Plan.

Classification of glands of the human body.

Characteristics of hormones.

Particular characteristics of the endocrine glands, their age characteristics.

All glands of the human body are divided into three groups.

Glands external secretion or exocrine have excretory ducts through which the substances formed in them are excreted into various cavities or at surface bodies. This group includes the liver, salivary, lacrimal, sweat, and sebaceous glands.

Glands internal secretion or endocrine do not have excretory ducts, the substances they synthesize - hormones - enter directly into the blood. This group includes the pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, and adrenal glands.

Glands mixed secretions have both exocrine and intrasecretory functions. These are the pancreas and gonads.

Hormones– these are physiologically active substances that participate, along with the nervous system, in the regulation of almost all processes occurring in the body. They regulate metabolism (protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral, water), helping to maintain homeostasis. Hormones influence the growth and formation of organs, organ systems and the entire body as a whole. Under the influence of hormones, tissue differentiation occurs; they can have a triggering effect on the effector organ or change the intensity of functioning of various organs. Hormones regulate biological rhythms and ensure adaptive reactions of the body under the influence of stress factors.

Hormones have:

high biological activity, i.e. hormones have an effect in very small concentrations;

specificity of action, i.e. hormones affect only target cells and target organs;

phenomena that occur due to insufficiency of one of the glands can disappear only when treated with hormones of the same gland;

distance of action, i.e. hormones can act on certain organs located at a great distance from the place of their release) Human endocrine glands are small in size, have a small mass (from fractions of a gram to several grams), and are richly supplied with blood vessels. Blood brings the necessary building material to them and carries away chemically active secretions. The activity of the endocrine glands changes significantly under the influence of pathological processes. It is possible either to increase the secretion of hormones - hyperfunction glands, or decrease - hypofunction

glands. Disturbances in the functioning of the endocrine glands in children have more negative consequences than in adults. However, as children and adolescents grow and develop, normal hormonal imbalances may occur, such as during puberty.

Thyroid Particular characteristics of the endocrine glands.

a newborn weighs about 1 g, at 5–10 years its weight increases to 10 g. Particularly intensive growth of the thyroid gland is observed at 11–15 years, during this period its weight is 25–35 g, i.e. almost reaches the level of an adult. The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which contain iodine. These hormones stimulate growth and development in the intrauterine period of ontogenesis. They are especially important for the full development and functioning of the nervous and immune systems. Under the influence of these hormones, heat production increases (calorigenic effect), and the metabolism of proteins, fats and carbohydrates is activated.

The thyroid gland also produces the hormone calcitonin, which ensures the absorption of calcium by bone tissue. The role of this hormone is especially important in children and adolescents, which is associated with increased skeletal growth.

Hypofunction of the thyroid gland in childhood can lead to serious mental development disorders - from minor dementia to idiocy. These disorders are accompanied by delayed growth, physical development and puberty, decreased performance, drowsiness, and speech disorders. This disease is called cretinism. Early detection of thyroid hypofunction and adequate treatment have a positive effect

Hypofunction of the thyroid gland in adults leads to the development of myxedema, hyperfunction - to the development of Graves' disease. With a lack of iodine in food, the thyroid tissue grows, and endemic goiter occurs.

Parathyroid glands. There are usually four of them, their total mass is only 0.1 g. Their hormone is parathyroid hormone - promotes the breakdown of bone tissue and the release of calcium into the blood, therefore, with its excess, the calcium content in the blood increases. Lack of parathyroid hormone, which sharply reduces the concentration of calcium in the blood, leads to the development of seizures, increases the excitability of the nervous system, and many disorders of autonomic functions and skeletal formation. Rarely, hyperfunction of the parathyroid glands causes skeletal decalcification (“softening” of the bones) and skeletal deformation. With increased activity of the parathyroid glands, the kidneys are affected; calcium deposition occurs in many organs, including the myocardium and heart vessels.

Adrenal glands- paired glands, consist of two dissimilar tissues - the cortex and the medulla. Hormones of the steroid structure are produced in the cortex - corticosteroids. There are three groups of corticosteroids: 1) glucocorticoids, 2) mineralocorticoids and 3) analogues of some hormonal products of the gonads.

Glucocorticoids (cortisol) have a powerful effect on metabolism. Under their influence, new formation of carbohydrates occurs from non-carbohydrates, especially protein breakdown products (hence their name). Glucocorticoids have a pronounced anti-inflammatory and antiallergic effect, and are also involved in ensuring the body's resistance under stress. Their role in children and adolescents is especially important in ensuring full adaptation to “school” stressful situations (moving to a new school, exams, tests, etc.).

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) regulate mineral and water metabolism. With a lack of aldosterone, excess sodium loss from the body and dehydration are possible. Excess of it increases inflammatory processes.

Androgens and estrogens of the adrenal cortex are close in their action to sex hormones synthesized in the sex glands - testes and ovaries, but their activity is significantly less. However, in the period before the onset of full maturation of the testes and ovaries, androgens and estrogens play a decisive role in the hormonal regulation of sexual development.

In children under 6-8 years of age, the adrenal cortex secretes gluco- and mineralocorticoids, but produces almost no sex hormones.

The adrenal medulla produces norepinephrine And adrenalin. Adrenaline increases the heart rate, increases the excitability and conductivity of the heart muscle, narrows small arteries of the skin and internal organs (except the heart and brain), which increases blood pressure. It inhibits muscle contractions of the stomach and small intestine and relaxes the bronchial muscles. Adrenaline increases the performance of skeletal muscles during work. Under its influence, the breakdown of liver glycogen increases and hyperglycemia occurs. Norepinephrine primarily increases blood pressure.

The secretion of norepinephrine and adrenaline is very important in situations that require the mobilization of strength and emergency reactions of the body. Therefore, W. Cannon called them “fight and flight hormones.” The content of many adrenal hormones depends on the physical fitness of the child’s body. A positive correlation has been found between the activity of the adrenal glands and the physical development of children and adolescents. Physical activity significantly increases the content of hormones that provide the body's protective functions, and thereby contributes to optimal development.

Pituitary, or the inferior medullary appendage is located in the sella turcica of the main bone, under the hypothalamus. In an adult, the pituitary gland weighs approximately 0.5 g. At birth, its weight does not exceed 0.1 g, but by the age of 10 it increases to 0.3 g and reaches adult levels in adolescence. The human pituitary gland is usually divided into three lobes.

In the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland somatotropin (growth hormone) and other tropic (stimulating) hormones are produced.

Somatotropin enhances protein synthesis, stimulates the breakdown of fat (lipolytic effect), which explains the decrease in body fat in children and adolescents during periods of increased growth.

Lack of growth hormone manifests itself in short stature (height below 130 cm), delayed sexual development; the proportions of the body are preserved. This disease is called pituitary dwarfism and is most often observed in children 5–8 years old. The mental development of pituitary dwarfs is usually not impaired.

Excess growth hormone in childhood leads to gigantism. This disease is observed relatively rarely: on average, there are 2-3 cases per 1000 people. The medical literature describes giants with a height of 2 m 83 cm and even more (3 m 20 cm). Giants are characterized by long limbs, lack of sexual function, and reduced physical endurance. Gigantism can appear at the age of 9-10 years or during puberty.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates the growth of the adrenal cortex and the biosynthesis of its hormones. The lack of ACTH secretion due to removal or destruction of the anterior pituitary gland makes it impossible for the body to adapt to stressors. It can have an effect on metabolism independently of the adrenal cortex (increases oxygen consumption, stimulates the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue), and promotes memory formation.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone controls the growth and maturation of the follicular epithelium of the thyroid gland and the main stages of the biosynthesis of thyroid hormones.

Gonadotropins control the activity of the gonads.

Regulation of the synthesis and secretion of adenohypophysis hormones is carried out by the hypothalamus.

From hormones of the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland The most studied is melanotropin, which regulates the color of the skin. Under the influence of melanotropin, pigment grains are distributed throughout the entire volume of skin cells, as a result of which the skin of this area acquires a dark tint. The so-called pigment spots of pregnancy and increased pigmentation of the skin of old people are signs of hyperfunction of the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland.

TO hormones of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland include vasopressin and oxytocin. They are synthesized in the hypothalamus, and the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland serves as a kind of reserve organ for these hormones.

Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone, or ADH) enhances the reabsorption of water from primary urine and also affects the salt composition of the blood. When the amount of ADH in the blood decreases, diabetes insipidus occurs (diabetes insipidus), in which up to 10-20 liters of urine are released per day. Together with the hormones of the adrenal cortex, ADH regulates water-salt metabolism in the body.

Oxytocin stimulates contraction of the uterine muscles and promotes expulsion of the fetus during childbirth. In addition, it increases milk production by the mammary glands as a result of contraction of the myoepithelial cells of the alveoli and mammary ducts of the mammary glands.

Pineal gland secretes melatonin, which serves as a physiological brake on the development of the gonads. Destruction of the pineal gland in children leads to premature puberty. Hyperfunction of the pineal gland causes obesity and the phenomenon of hypogenitalism. Pineal gland hormones take part in the regulation of biological rhythms.

Thymus ( thymus) is formed in the 6th week of intrauterine development. This is a lymphoid organ, well developed in childhood. Its greatest mass in relation to body weight is observed in both the fetus and a child under 2 years of age. After 2 years, the relative mass of the gland decreases, and the absolute mass increases and becomes maximum during puberty.

The thymus plays an important role in the immunological defense of the body, in particular in the formation of immunocompetent cells, i.e. cells capable of specifically recognizing an antigen and responding to it with an immune response. This is done with the help of thymus hormones - thymosins and thymopoietins.

In children with congenital underdevelopment of the thymus, lymphopenia occurs (a decrease in the content of lymphocytes in the blood) and the formation of immune bodies sharply decreases, which leads to frequent death from infections. Currently, thymic hormone preparations are already being used to correct immunological deficiency in humans.

Pancreas refers to mixed glands: here pancreatic juice (external secretion) is formed, which plays an important role in digestion; here, in the cells of the “islands” of the gland, the secretion of hormones is carried out, taking part in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

Hormone insulin reduces blood glucose levels, increasing the permeability of cell membranes to it. It increases the formation of fat from glucose and inhibits the breakdown of fat. Lack of insulin leads to the development of diabetes.

There is little data on age-related characteristics of insulin secretion in children. However, it is known that resistance to glucose load in children under 10 years of age is higher, and the absorption of dietary glucose occurs much faster than in adults. This explains why children love sweets so much and consume them in large quantities without danger to their health. With old age, this process slows down significantly, which indicates a decrease in the insular activity of the pancreas. Most often, middle-aged people, mostly over 40 years old, suffer from diabetes, although there are also frequent cases of congenital diabetes, which is associated with a hereditary predisposition.

Glucagon Children also suffer from this disease, most often from 6 to 12 years old, i.e. during the period of fastest growth. During this period, diabetes mellitus sometimes develops against the background of previous infectious diseases (measles, chicken pox, mumps).

promotes the breakdown of liver glycogen into glucose. Therefore, its administration or increased secretion increases the level of glucose in the blood, i.e. causes hyperglycemia. In addition, glucagon stimulates the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue. Gonads

are also mixed. Here, both sex cells - sperm and eggs - and sex hormones are formed. Male sex hormones are produced in the male gonads - the testes - androgens (testosterone and androsterone).

Male sex hormones determine the development of the reproductive apparatus, the growth of the genital organs, the development of secondary sexual characteristics: brittleness and deepening of the voice, changes in physique, and the pattern of hair growth on the face and body. Androgens stimulate protein synthesis in the body, which is why men tend to be larger and more muscular than women. Hyperfunction of the testes at an early age leads to accelerated puberty, body growth and premature appearance of secondary sexual characteristics. Damage or removal of the testes at an early age leads to underdevelopment of the genital organs and secondary sexual characteristics, as well as a lack of sexual desire. Normally, the testes function throughout a man’s life. Female sex hormones are produced in the female gonads - the ovaries - which have a specific effect on the development of the genital organs, the production of eggs and their preparation for fertilization, and affect the structure of the uterus and mammary glands. Ovarian hyperfunction causes early puberty with pronounced secondary sexual characteristics and early onset of menstruation. In old age, women experience menopause, caused by the fact that all or almost all of the follicles with the eggs they contain are used up.

The process of puberty proceeds unevenly; it is usually divided into certain stages, each of which is characterized by the specific contribution of nervous and endocrine regulation.

Bezrukikh M.M. and others. Age-related physiology (Physiology of child development): Textbook. aid for students higher ped. textbook institutions/M.M.Bezrukikh, V.D.Sonkin, D.A.Farber. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002. - 416 p.

Drzhevetskaya I.A.

Endocrine system of a growing organism: Textbook. manual for biol. specialist. universities – M.: Higher school, 1987. – 207 p.

Ermolaev Yu.A.

Age-related physiology: Proc. manual for pedagogical students. universities – M.: Higher.

school, 1985. – 384 p.

Obreimova N.I., Petrukhin A.S. Fundamentals of anatomy, physiology and hygiene of children and adolescents: Textbook. aid for students defectol. fak. higher ped. textbook establishments. – M.: Publishing Center “Academy”, 2000. – 376 p.

In other words, the exocrine glands of the body secrete the produced secretions on surfaces in direct contact with the environment. Typically, their products serve to bind, contain, and then remove molecules of potentially dangerous or useless substances. In addition, the layers that have fulfilled their purpose are eliminated by the body itself - as a result of the renewal of the cells of the outer covering of the organ.

As for the endocrine glands, they completely produce substances that serve to start or stop processes inside the body. The products of their secretion are subject to constant and complete use. Most often with the disintegration of the original molecule and its transformation into a completely different substance. Hormones (the so-called secretion products of endocrine glands) are always in demand in the body because, when used as intended, they break down to form other molecules. That is, not a single hormone molecule can be reused by the body. Therefore, the endocrine glands normally must work continuously, often with uneven load.

As we see, in relation to the endocrine system the body has a kind of conditioned reflex. An excess or, on the contrary, a deficiency of any hormones is unacceptable here. In itself, fluctuations in the level of hormones in the blood are quite normal. It all depends on what process needs to be activated now and how much it needs to be done. The decision to stimulate or suppress any process is made by the brain. More precisely,* the neurons of the hypothalamus surrounding the pituitary gland. They give a “command” to the pituitary gland, and it begins, in turn, to “manage” the work of the glands. This system of interaction between the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland is called in medicine hypothalamic-pituitary.

Naturally, situations in a person’s life are different. And they all affect the condition and functioning of his body. And the brain—more precisely, its cortex—is responsible for the reaction and behavior of the body in certain circumstances. It is designed to ensure the safety and stability of the body under any external conditions. This is the essence of his daily work.

Thus, during a period of prolonged fasting, the brain must take a number of biological measures that would allow the body to wait out this time with minimal losses. And during periods of satiety, on the contrary, he must do everything to ensure that food is absorbed as completely and quickly as possible. Therefore, a healthy endocrine system is able, so to speak, to release huge single doses of hormones into the blood, so to speak, when necessary. And tissue brushes, in turn, have the ability to absorb these stimulants in unlimited quantities. Without this combination, the effective functioning of the endocrine system loses its main meaning.

If we now understand why a one-time overdose of a hormone is a phenomenon in principle impossible, let’s talk about the hormones themselves and the glands that produce them. Inside the brain tissue there are two glands - the pituitary gland and the pineal gland. Both of them are located inside the midbrain. The pineal gland is in its part, which is called the epithalamus, and the pituitary gland is in the hypothalamus.

Pineal gland produces mainly corticosteroid hormones. That is, hormones that control the activity of the cerebral cortex. Moreover, pineal gland hormones regulate the degree of its activity depending on the time of day. The tissues of the pineal gland contain special cells - pinealocytes. The same cells are found in our skin and retina. Their main purpose is to record and transmit information about the level of illumination outside to the brain. That is, about the amount of light that falls on them at a given time. And pinealocytes in the tissues of the pineal gland serve this gland so that it can alternately increase the synthesis of either serotonin or melatonin.

Serotonin and melatonin are the two main hormones of the pineal gland. The first is responsible for concentrated, uniform activity of the cerebral cortex. It stimulates attention and thinking that is not stressful, but as if normal for the brain during wakefulness. As for melatonin, it is one of the sleep hormones. Thanks to it, the speed of impulses passing through the nerve endings decreases, many physiological processes slow down and the person becomes sleepy. Thus, the periods of wakefulness and sleep of the cerebral cortex depend on how accurately and correctly the pineal gland distinguishes the time of day.

Pituitary, as we have already found out, performs many more functions than the pineal gland. In general, this gland itself produces more than 20 hormones for various purposes. Due to the normal secretion of all its substances by the pituitary gland, it can partially compensate for the functions of the glands of the endocrine system subordinate to it. With the exception of the thymus and islet cells in the pancreas, since these two organs produce substances that the pituitary gland cannot synthesize.

Plus, with the help of the products of its own synthesis, the pituitary gland still has time, so to speak, to coordinate the activities of the rest of the endocrine glands of the body. Processes such as the peristalsis of the stomach and intestines, the feeling of hunger and thirst, heat and cold, the rate of metabolism in the body, the growth and development of the skeleton, puberty, the ability to conceive, the rate of blood clotting, etc., depend on its correct operation. and so on.

Sustained dysfunction of the pituitary gland leads to large-scale disorders throughout the body. In particular, due to damage to the pituitary gland, diabetes mellitus may develop, which in no way depends on the condition of the pancreas tissue. Or chronic digestive dysfunction with an initially completely healthy gastrointestinal tract. Injuries to the pituitary gland significantly increase the clotting time of some blood proteins.

Next on our list thyroid. It is located in the upper front of the neck, just under the chin. The thyroid gland is shaped like a butterfly, much more than a shield. Because it is formed, like most glands, by two large lobes connected by an isthmus of the same tissue. The main purpose of the thyroid gland is to synthesize hormones that regulate the rate of metabolism of substances, as well as the growth of cells of all tissues of the body, including bone.

In most cases, the thyroid gland produces hormones formed with the participation of iodine. Namely, thyroxine and its more active modification from a chemical point of view - triiodothyronine. In addition, some thyroid cells (parathyroid glands) synthesize the hormone calcitonin, which serves as a catalyst for the reaction in the absorption of calcium and phosphorus molecules by the bones.

Thymus located slightly lower - behind the flat sternum bone, which connects two rows of ribs, forming our chest. The thymus lobes are located under the upper part of the sternum - closer to the collarbones. More precisely, where the common larynx begins to bifurcate, turning into the trachea of ​​the right and left lungs. This endocrine gland is an essential part of the immune system. It produces not hormones, but special immune bodies - lymphocytes.

Lymphocytes, unlike leukocytes, are transported into tissues through lymph flow rather than blood flow. Another important difference between thymic lymphocytes and bone marrow leukocytes is their functional purpose. Leukocytes are not able to penetrate into the tissue cells themselves. Even if they are infected. Leukocytes are only capable of recognizing and destroying pathogens whose bodies are located in the intercellular space, blood and lymph.

It is not white blood cells that are responsible for the timely detection and destruction of infected, old, malformed cells, but lymphocytes that are produced and trained in the thymus. It should be added that each type of lymphocyte has its own not strict, but obvious “specialization”. Thus, B lymphocytes serve as unique indicators of infection. They detect the pathogen, determine its type and trigger the synthesis of proteins directed specifically against this invasion. T lymphocytes regulate the speed and strength of the immune system's response to infection. And NK lymphocytes are indispensable in cases where it is necessary to remove from tissues cells that are not affected by infection, but defective ones that have been exposed to irradiation or the action of toxic substances.

In childhood, this gland forms immunity, so it is much more active than in adults. located where indicated< в ее названии, - под сфинктером желудка, у начал а тонкого кишечника. В основном своем назначении она вырабатывает пищеварительные ферменты тонкого кишечника. Однако в массиве ее тканей имеются включения клеток другого типа, которые вырабатывают всем известный гормон инсулин. Инсулином он был назван потому, что группки производящих его клеток по виду напоминают островки. А в переводе с латинского языка слово insula и означает «остров».

It is known that all substances received with food are broken down in the stomach and intestines into glucose molecules - the main source of energy for any cell in the body.

The absorption of glucose by cells is possible only in the presence of insulin. Therefore, if there is a deficiency of this pancreatic hormone in the blood, a person eats, but his cells do not receive this food. This phenomenon is called diabetes mellitus.

Next: down we have the adrenal glands. If the kidneys themselves act as the main filters of the body and synthesize urine, then the adrenal glands are completely busy producing hormones. Moreover, in terms of the direction of action, the hormones produced by the adrenal glands largely duplicate the work of the pituitary gland. Thus, the adrenal body is one of the main sources of stress hormones - dopamine, norepinephrine and adrenaline. And their bark is a source of corticosteroid hormones aldosterone, cortisol (hydrocortisone) and corticosterone. Among other things, in the body of each person the adrenal glands synthesize a nominal amount of hormones of the opposite sex. In women it is testosterone, and in men it is estrogen.

And finally, gonads. Their main purpose is obvious, and it consists in the synthesis of a sufficient amount of sex hormones. Sufficient for the formation of an organism with all the signs of its gender and for the further uninterrupted operation of the reproduction system. The difficulty here lies in the fact that the body of both men and women simultaneously produces hormones of not one, but both sexes. Only the main hormonal background is formed due to the work of the gonads of the corresponding type (ovaries or testes), and the secondary one - due to the much lesser activity of other glands.

For example, in women, testosterone is produced primarily in the adrenal glands. And estrogen in men is found in the adrenal glands and fat deposits. The ability of fat cells to synthesize substances with properties resembling hormones was discovered relatively late - in the 1990s. Until this time, adipose tissue was considered an organ that took minimal part in metabolism. Their role was assessed by science very simply - fat was considered a place of accumulation and storage of female sex hormones estrogen. This explained the high percentage of fatty tissue in a woman’s body compared to men.

At present, the understanding of the biochemical role of adipose tissue in the body has expanded significantly. This happened thanks to the discovery of adipokines - hormone-like substances that are synthesized by fat cells. There are quite a lot of these substances, and their study has only just begun. Nevertheless, we can already say with confidence that among the adipokines there are substances that can increase the resistance of body cells to the action of the body’s own insulin.

So, we already know that the endocrine system of the body includes seven endocrine glands. And, as we ourselves could see, there are strong relationships between them. Most of these relationships are formed by two factors. The first is that the work of all endocrine glands is coordinated and controlled by a common analytical center - the pituitary gland. This gland is located inside the brain tissue, and its work, in turn, is regulated by this organ. The latter becomes feasible due to the presence of a separate system of connections between the neurons of the hypothalamus and the cells of the pituitary gland, which is called the hypothalamic-pituitary.

And the second factor is the effect that we have clearly demonstrated of duplicating the functions of many glands with each other. For example, the same pituitary gland not only regulates the activity of all elements of the endocrine system, but also synthesizes most of the same substances as they do. Likewise, the adrenal glands produce a number of hormones that will be sufficient to continue the functioning of the cerebral cortex. Including complete failure of both the pituitary gland and the pineal gland. In the same way, the adrenal glands are capable of changing the content of the body’s basic hormonal levels in the event of failure of the gonads. This will happen due to their ability to produce hormones of the opposite sex.

As mentioned above, the exception to this system of mutually determined connections are two glands - the thymus and special cells in the pancreas that produce insulin. However, there are no truly strict exceptions here either. Lymphocytes produced in the thymus form a very important part of the body's immune defense. However, we understand that we are talking about only part of immunity, and not about it as a whole. As for islet cells, in fact, the mechanism of sugar absorption with the help of insulin in the body is not the only one. The liver and brain are organs that are able to metabolize glucose even in the absence of this hormone. The only “but” is that the liver is only capable of processing a slightly different chemical modification of glucose, called fructose.

Thus, in the case of the endocrine system, the main difficulty is that most pathologies and medical influences simply cannot affect only one, the target organ. This is impossible because both similar cells in other glands and the pituitary gland, which records the level of each hormone in the patient’s blood, will necessarily react to such an effect.