In the last days of March 1814, Allied troops triumphantly entered Paris. This meant the complete defeat of Napoleonic France and the final end of many years of European wars. Napoleon himself soon abdicated power and was exiled to Elba, and the victorious allies sat down at the negotiating table to remake the map of European countries.

For this purpose, the Congress of Vienna was convened, which took place in Austria in 1814-1815. It was attended by representatives of Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, France and Portugal.

The main issues considered were the following: the redistribution of Europe in favor of the victorious countries, the restoration of monarchical power in Europe and the prevention of any possibility of Napoleon returning to power.

In France, representatives of the Bourbon dynasty were restored to their rights, and the throne was taken by Louis XVIII, the closest heir of the executed man. In addition, the winners wanted the restoration of the previous system - the feudal noble-absolutist one. Of course, after all the political achievements of the French Revolution, this goal was utopian, but nevertheless, for many years, Europe entered a regime of conservatism and reaction.

The main problem was the redistribution of lands, especially Poland and Saxony. Russian Emperor Alexander I wanted to annex Polish lands to the territory of Russia, and give Saxony to the power of Prussia. But representatives of Austria, England and France did their best to prevent such a decision. They even signed a secret agreement against the territorial aspirations of Prussia and Russia, so at the first stage such a redistribution did not take place.

In general, the Congress of Vienna showed that the main superiority of forces was observed in Russia, Prussia, England and Austria. By bargaining and quarreling among themselves, representatives of these countries carried out the main redistribution of Europe.

In the spring of 1815, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba, landed in France and began a new military campaign. However, his soldiers were soon completely defeated at Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 began to work at an accelerated pace. Now its participants tried to make final decisions on the territorial structure of Europe as quickly as possible.

At the beginning of July 1815, the General Act of Congress was signed, according to which France was deprived of all previously conquered lands. What was now called the Kingdom of Poland went to Russia. The Rhineland, Posen, Westphalia and most of Saxony were ceded to Prussia. Austria annexed Lombardy, Galicia and Venice to its territory, and in the principalities this country became the most influential. Of course, this affected the interests of the Prussian state.

In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, annexing Savoy and Nice, while establishing the rights of the Savoy dynasty. Tuscany, Modena and Parma came under the rule of Austrian representatives. Rome again came under the rule of the Pope, to whom all previous rights were returned. The Bourbons took the throne in Naples. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed from Holland and Belgium.

The small German states that Napoleon abolished were, for the most part, never restored. Their total number has decreased by almost ten times. However, the fragmentation of Germany, which now had 38 states, remained as before.

The colonial lands that it took from Spain, France and Holland went to England. and Ceylon, Guiana, and the Ionian Islands were now finally secured by the British kingdom.

A confederation of nineteen Swiss cantons was formed, which declared “perpetual neutrality.” Norway was transferred to the power of Sweden, removing it from Denmark.

But at the same time, all European states, without exception, feared the excessive strengthening of Russia, since it was this country that played the role of victor over Napoleonic troops.

The Vienna Conference ended there, but in the fall of 1815, Alexander I decided to strengthen the new European order and establish the leading role of Russia and England. On his initiative, an agreement was signed to create which included Austria, Prussia and the Russian Empire. According to the agreements, these states promised to help each other in the event of revolutions or popular uprisings.

The Congress of Vienna and its decisions had a decisive influence on the entire European system. Only after 1917, when the First World War ends, will European territory be redrawn again.

Congress of Vienna and its decisions

Autumn 1814 - 216 representatives of all European states, excluding the Turkish Empire, gathered in Vienna for the congress. Main role – Russia, England and Austria.

The goal of the participants is to satisfy their own aggressive territorial claims by redividing Europe and the colonies.

Played the main role European Committee or a committee of eight (Austria, Russia, Prussia, England, France, Spain, Portugal, Sweden) + committees on individual problems (for example, the German committee). All countries were represented by monarchs with the exception of France and England. In reality, the decisive role was played by representatives of foreign policy departments (Metternich, Castlereagh, Hardenberg, Talleyrand).

Interests:

Russia - annexing most of the territory of the abolished “Duchy of Warsaw” to his empire. Support for feudal reaction and strengthening of Russian influence in Europe. Strengthening Austria and Prussia as a counterweight to each other.

England - sought to secure a commercial, industrial and colonial monopoly for it and supported the policy of feudal reactions. Weakening of France and Russia.

Austria - defended the principles of feudal-absolutist reaction and the strengthening of Austrian national oppression over the Slavic peoples, Italians and Hungarians. Weakening influence of Russia and Prussia.

Prussia - wanted to capture Saxony and gain new important possessions on the Rhine. She fully supported the feudal reaction and demanded the most merciless policy towards France.

France - opposed the deprivation of the Saxon king of the throne and possessions in favor of Prussia.

January 3, 1815 - alliance of England, Austria and France against Russia and Prussia. Through joint pressure, the Tsar and the Prussian king were forced to make concessions.

Prussia- northern part of Saxony(the southern part remained an independent kingdom). Joined Rhineland and Westphalia. This made it possible for Prussia to subsequently subjugate Germany. Joined Swedish Pomerania.

Royal Russia - part of the Duchy of Warsaw. Poznan and Gdansk remained in Prussian hands, and Galicia was again transferred to Austria. Preserved Finland and Bessarabia.

England– secured Fr. Malta and colonies captured from Holland and France.

Austria- dominion over northeastern Italy, Lombardy and Venice.

June 9, 1815 – the General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. 121 articles, 17 appendices. The essence of the act:

1. France is deprived of all occupied lands. The borders of 1790, the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty, and the occupying troops remained on its territory.

2. France returns Lombardy to Austria + Venice

3. Prussia annexed the Rhineland, Pomerania, and the northern part of Saxony.

4. England received Tobago, Trinidad, Ceylon, Malta, Guiana, Cape Colony.

5. Holland received Belgium.

6. Denmark received Holstein and Schleswig.

7. Restoration of the Papal States, the Kingdom of Naples and Switzerland.

8. Union of Sweden and Norway.

9. Consolidation of the fragmentation of Germany (38 states, the German Diet, the German Confederation). Diet in Frankfurt am Main. Austrian dominance.

10. Solution to the Polish issue:

In the beginning. In the 19th century, Napoleon tried to use Poland as bait for Alexander I and created the Duchy of Warsaw (from Prussian lands in Poland). Gdansk is a free city. The Bialystok district went to Russia. The duchies are headed by the Saxon king. Napoleon gave the Poles a Constitution. Napoleon himself is a ruler through a Saxon prince. Depletion of Polish resources. The Austrians then occupied Warsaw. 1809 – peace treaty. Austria gave up part of the territories to the Duchy of Warsaw: Western Galicia, Zamaysky district, small territories on the right bank of the Rhine. Remained with Napoleon.

Napoleon was preparing for war with Russia. Poland is a springboard and center of anti-Russian sentiment among the gentry. 1810 – Franco-Russian convention. France pledged not to expand the territory of the Duchy of Warsaw.

War of 1812 – Napoleon lost.

1813 – Russian troops invade the Duchy of Warsaw.

Positions of the powers at the Congress of Vienna:

England - approved the creation of the Kingdom of Poland, but in 1813 changed its mind and began to oppose it. As a result, he meets Alexander I halfway. Alexander I realized his interest.

January 1815 - England, Austria and France conclude a convention against Prussia and Russia. May 3, 1815 - agreement between Russia, Prussia and Austria on the Duchy of Warsaw. The Polish question was resolved in favor of Russia.

11. Prussia received the Poznań and Bydgoszcz departments. Austria received Wieliczka. Krakow is a free republic under the protectorate of three states. Everything else goes to Russia => Kingdom of Poland.

12. Decision to prohibit the slave trade

13. Convention on Freedom of Navigation on International Rivers in Europe

14. Respect for the property rights of foreign citizens

15. 03/19/1815 – regulations on the ranks of diplomatic representatives (Vienna Regulations), a unified procedure for the reception of ambassadors:

Papal Legate (Nuncio)

2. Messenger

Resident Minister

3. Chargé d'affaires

· Relations with the Ottoman Empires. Mahmud II was not allowed to attend the congress.

1815 – Alexander I issues a note about the plight of Christians in the Balkans. He offered the right to European states to intervene in Turkish affairs. The countries refused to discuss.

A few words about the results of the Congress of Vienna, which completed its work at the beginning of June 1815. As we remember, the rapid return of Napoleon from the island of Elba and the restoration of the French empire accelerated the resolution of controversial issues between the victorious countries that had been agitating the minds of the meeting participants for several months. On May 3, 1815, treaties were signed between Russia, Austria and Prussia, which determined the fate of the Duchy of Warsaw, as well as between Prussia and Saxony.

Congress of Vienna
Book illustration

The Russian Sovereign left the congress two weeks before its end, having previously signed a manifesto About the raising of arms against the thief of the French throne by all powers that preserve the law of piety and truth. He went to the location of his army, which, under the leadership of Field Marshal Barclay de Tolly, was advancing towards the Rhine.

On June 8, the Act of the German Confederation was adopted, and the next day, June 9, the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna, consisting of 121 articles, consolidated the new borders of states established as a result of the redistribution of Europe. In addition to the articles, the Final Act included 17 annexes, including the treaty on the division of Poland, the declaration on the abolition of the trade in blacks, the rules of navigation on border and international rivers, the provision on diplomatic agents, the act on the constitution of the German Confederation and others.

So, according to the decision of the Congress of Vienna, Poland was divided. Most of the Duchy of Warsaw, under the name of the Kingdom of Poland, became part of the Russian Empire. Alexander I received the title of Tsar of Poland. From now on, thanks to the fact that in 1809, according to the Treaty of Friedrichsham, Finland came under the scepter of the Russian emperor, moving Swedish possessions away from Russian borders to the Arctic Circle and the Gulf of Bothnia, and in 1812 - Bessarabia, with powerful water barriers in the form of the Prut and Dniester rivers, in the west an empire of sorts was created safety belt, which excluded a direct enemy invasion of Russian territory.

Duchy of Warsaw 1807-1814.
Borders of Poland according to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna 1815: salad color - the Kingdom of Poland within Russia,
blue - part that went to Prussia, red - free city of Krakow

The western lands of Greater Poland with Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. And Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Red Rus'. Krakow became a free city. The Congress of Vienna declared the granting of autonomy to the Polish lands in all its parts, but in fact this was carried out only in Russia, where, by the will of Emperor Alexander I, known for his liberal aspirations, the Kingdom of Poland was granted a constitution.

In addition to part of the Duchy of Warsaw, Prussia received North Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland, Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. The north of Italy returned to Austrian control: Lombardy and the Venetian region (Lombardy-Venetian Kingdom), the duchies of Tuscany and Parma, as well as Tyrol and Salzburg.

Map of the German Confederation, 1815

In addition to the Polish issue, the German question was a stumbling block at the negotiations in Vienna. The victorious powers were afraid of the formation of a monolithic German state in the very heart of Europe, but were not against the creation of a kind of confederation that served as an outpost at the borders of unpredictable France. After much debate within the borders of the former Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, the German Confederation was created - a confederation of different-sized German states: kingdoms, duchies, electors and principalities, as well as four city-republics (Frankfurt am Main, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck). Four countries - Austria, Prussia, Denmark and the Netherlands - belonged to the union with only part of their possessions. There were no strong economic ties, common legislation, common finances, or diplomatic services between these sovereign states. The only central authority was the Federal Diet, which met in Frankfurt am Main and consisted of representatives of the governments of the states that were part of the German Confederation. The Austrian Emperor presided over the Diet. The goal of the Union was also very modest: Preservation of external and internal security of Germany, independence and inviolability of individual German states.

England in Europe received Gibraltar, Malta, the Ionian Islands, and with them a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea; in the North Sea - the Heligoland archipelago. In addition, it secured part of the conquered French and Dutch colonies: the Lucay Islands and Tobago in the West Indies, Mauritius east of Madagascar, and the cotton districts of the Netherlands Guinea, which further strengthened the maritime power of the British Crown.

Belgium was incorporated into the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the auspices of William I of Orange-Nassau. France's ally Denmark lost Norway, which was transferred to Sweden, but received German Schleswig and Holstein. Switzerland, which included Wallis, Geneva and Neuchâtel, expanded its lands and acquired strategically important Alpine passes. It constituted a confederation of free, independent and neutral cantons. Spain and Portugal remained within their previous borders and returned to their ruling royal dynasties (the Spanish Bourbons and Braganzas, respectively)

Map of Italy in 1815

And finally, Italy, which, in the aptly caustic expression of Prince Metternich, after the decisions of the Congress of Vienna is nothing more than a geographical concept. Its territory was fragmented into eight small states: in the north two kingdoms - Sardinia (Piedmont) and Lombardo-Venetian, as well as four duchies - Parma, Modena, Tuscany and Lucca; in the center is the Papal States with Rome as its capital, and in the south is the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Neapolitan-Sicilian). Thus, in Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, the Kingdom of Naples (Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), after bloody battles and the flight of King Joachim Murat, was returned to the Bourbons, and Savoy, Nice were returned to the restored Kingdom of Sardinia and Genoa was given.

Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna

As Russian historian Lieutenant General Nikolai Karlovich Schilder summarized: Russia has increased its territory by about 2100 square meters. miles with a population of over three million; Austria acquired 2300 sq. miles with ten million people, and Prussia 2217 square meters. miles with 5,362,000 people. Thus, Russia, which bore the brunt of the three-year war with Napoleon on its shoulders and made the greatest sacrifices for the triumph of European interests, received the least reward. Regarding the most significant territorial gains of the Austrian Empire, Schilder echoes Petersburg letters French politician and diplomat Joseph-Marie de Maistre: she (Austria) succeeded get a huge win in a lottery for which she did not buy tickets...

But the main result of the Congress of Vienna was the creation of a new system of international relations in Europe (called Vienna), based on the dominance of four great powers- Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, which was joined by France in 1818 after the withdrawal of the allied troops.

Vienna Congress of the Victors 1814–1815 Viennese congress (1814–1815), a peace conference of European states in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815 to regulate the political situation in Europe in the face of the defeat of Napoleonic France. Convened under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814 between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden.

In September 1814, preliminary negotiations between the victorious countries took place in Vienna, attempting to develop a common position before the start of the Congress; The negotiations, however, ended in failure due to serious contradictions between their participants. Russia laid claim to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon in 1807–1809 from Polish lands belonging to Austria and Prussia, but such a strengthening of Russia did not meet the interests of its allies. Prussia intended to annex Napoleon's allied Saxony, but this was strongly opposed by Austria, which intended to turn Germany into a federation of monarchies under its supremacy; The Austrian Habsburgs also planned to establish their hegemony in Italy. The allies were united in only one thing - to deprive France of its leading role in Europe and reduce its territory to the borders of 1792. On September 22, they agreed to remove France, along with Spain, Portugal and Sweden, from real participation in the work of the Congress. But the French delegation, headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince S.-M., arrived in Vienna on September 23. Talleyrand managed to achieve full participation in the negotiations.

Congress opened in early November 1814; It was attended by 450 diplomats from 126 European states, with the exception of Turkey. Decisions were made at meetings of representatives of the five powers (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, France) or in special bodies - the Committee on German Affairs (created on October 14), the Committee on Swiss Affairs (November 14), the Statistical Commission (December 24), etc. .d.

The main and most pressing issue turned out to be the Polish-Saxon one. Even at the stage of preliminary negotiations (September 28), Russia and Prussia entered into a secret agreement, according to which Russia pledged to support Prussia’s claims to Saxony in exchange for support of its claims to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But these plans encountered opposition from France, which did not want to expand Prussian influence in Northern Germany. Appealing to the principle of legitimism (restoration of legal rights), Sh.-M. Talleyrand attracted Austria and the small German states to his side. Under pressure from the French, the English government also changed its position in favor of the Saxon king Frederick Augustus I. In response, Russia withdrew its occupation forces from Saxony and transferred it to Prussian control (November 10). There was a threat of a split in the Sixth Coalition and a military conflict between Russia and Prussia with Great Britain, Austria and France.

The subject of discussion at the Congress were other important issues - the political structure of Germany and the borders of German states, the status of Switzerland, the political situation in Italy, navigation on international rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Moselle, etc.), trade in blacks. Russia's attempt to raise the question of the position of the Christian population in the Ottoman Empire and granting it the right to intervene in its defense did not meet with the understanding of other powers.

One of the most difficult was the question of the Kingdom of Naples. France demanded that Napoleonic Marshal I. Murat be deprived of the Neapolitan throne and the local branch of the Bourbon dynasty restored; she managed to win Great Britain over to her side. However, the plans to overthrow Murat were opposed by Austria, which in January 1814 guaranteed the inviolability of his possessions as payment for betraying Napoleon and for going over to the side of the Sixth Coalition.

March 1, 1815 Napoleon, having left the place of his exile on Fr. Elba, landed in France. On March 13, the participating powers of the Peace of Paris outlawed him and promised assistance to the legitimate King Louis XVIII. However, already on March 20, the Bourbon regime fell; On March 25, Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Seventh Anti-French Coalition. Napoleon's attempt to split it and come to an agreement with Alexander I failed. On April 12, Austria declared war on Murat and quickly defeated his army; On May 19, Bourbon power was restored in Naples. On June 9, representatives of the eight powers signed the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.

According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Prussia abandoned Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of regions on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and about. Rügen. South Saxony remained under the rule of Frederick Augustus I. In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of almost two thousand states, abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Union arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria.

Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; the thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg; The Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice were returned.

Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded to include Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel. Denmark lost Norway, which went to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this.

Belgium and Holland formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of the Orange dynasty; Luxembourg became part of it on the basis of a personal union. England secured the Ionian Islands and about. Malta, in the West Indies. Saint Lucia and Fr. Tobago, in the Indian Ocean Seychelles Islands and. Ceylon, Cape Colony in Africa; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.

The Congress of Vienna was the first attempt to establish lasting peace in Europe on the basis of a collective agreement of all European states; concluded agreements could not be terminated unilaterally, but they could be changed with the consent of all participants. To guarantee European borders, in September 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia created the Holy Alliance, which France joined in November. The Vienna System ensured a long period of peace and relative stability in Europe. However, it was vulnerable because it was based largely on the political-dynastic rather than the national principle and ignored the essential interests of many European peoples (Belgians, Poles, Germans, Italians); it consolidated the fragmentation of Germany and Italy under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs; Prussia found itself cut into two parts (western and eastern), which were in a hostile environment.

The Viennese system began to collapse in 1830–1831, when rebellious Belgium broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and gained independence. The final blow was dealt to it by the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War of 1859, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, as a result of which the united Italian and German states emerged.

Diplomacy of Alexander I, Metternich, Talleyrand.

All participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon. Russia led by Alexander I, Great Britain first led by Keslereagh and then Wellington, Austria led by Franz I and Prussia led by Hardenberg were represented here. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. Despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues. The distrust of the Congress participants in each other and the contradictions that reigned between them allowed Talleyrand to achieve French participation in the Congress on an equal basis with the winners. Going to Vienna, he put forward a proposal that the participants in the Congress, when establishing new borders, proceed from the need to preserve without changes everything that existed before 1792, i.e. France wanted to receive guarantees of preserving its territory, and Russia and Prussia should were to remain in their own interests. This principle is known as the “principle of legitimism.” France was afraid of the strengthening of Russia, but even more of Prussia. To prevent him, Talleyrand, being a master of intrigue, entered into secret negotiations with Lord Keslereagh and Metternich, and tried to organize joint actions of France, England and Austria against Russia. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.

At Metternich's proposal, they agreed to create the so-called German Confederation consisting of 38 German states, as well as Austria and Prussia. France was most afraid of the strengthening of Prussia, which directly bordered it. Talleyrand brought to the attention of Alexander I that France would not support England and Austria, who opposed the creation of the Kingdom of Poland within the borders of Russia, and at the same time would not agree to the inclusion of Saxony in Prussia. Alexander I was confident that Prussia would receive Saxony, and Russia would receive the Duchy of Warsaw, which he intended to include the Bialystok and Tarnopol regions. After long negotiations, Talleyrand obtained the consent of Metternich and Keslereagh to conclude an alliance of England, Austria and France against Prussia and Russia, and on January 3, 1815, a secret agreement was signed containing the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent the annexation of Saxony to Prussia on any terms. The three powers pledged not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, the annexation of territories to a particular country or their separation. And we were talking about Saxony here. To prevent Saxony from being transferred to Prussia by force, France, Austria and England agreed on a joint military action, each contributing 150 thousand troops. England was allowed to replace its contingent with mercenary troops from other countries or by paying 20 pounds sterling for each infantryman and 30 pounds sterling for each cavalryman. The three countries also pledged not to conclude a separate peace. This put Alexander I in a difficult position. The Russian emperor himself received everything he wanted, but his ally Prussia was deprived. Alexander could not and did not want to oppose the three powers, or wage war against them. In the end he had to give in.

Thus, Metternich managed to support France and prevent the strengthening of Prussia, an ally of Russia, at the expense of Saxony. But the secret agreement between England, Austria and France received wide publicity three months later, which influenced the further work of the Congress of Vienna. These events took place in Paris, during the historical period known as the “100 days”. Having landed in France with a small group of devoted soldiers and officers, Napoleon March 19, 1815. entered Paris. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently sent to Alexander I, who handed it over to the astonished Metternich.

Thanks to Alexander I, the construction of a completely unique Vienna world system became possible. Its stability was ensured by the pentarchy - the power of five powers. The Russian emperor found the core that ensured peace in Europe. To understand the idea of ​​the Congress of Vienna, you need to turn to the interpersonal relations of Napoleon and Alexander I, whose genius many historians underestimate. Two great men were competing with each other to see which of them was greater. Napoleon was a genius of war. Alexander understood that it was impossible to compete with him in this field. Therefore, the Russian emperor chose to become a genius of the world.

There have always been many great commanders, but there have not been those who ensured long-term peace and prosperity. This explains his expansive and peaceful mood in Vienna. In fact, Alexander forced everyone to peace, forced other European rulers to share his philosophy of peace. And thanks in part to Alexander, France returned to the community of great powers. England was determined to keep defeated France behind bars for a long time, but the Russian emperor said no.

Talleyrand is a master of the art of the impossible. Without any trump cards in his hands, he brilliantly built his line. Imagine a team on a football field that is left with just six of them, but continues to play and score goals. That was Talleyrand. He immediately stated: if I am defeated, then I am condemned, but this is not an acceptable format for conversation; if you want to build a lasting peace, then I should not sit opposite you, but on the same side as you.

It was Talleyrand who returned France to the community of great powers. Who else was able to pull off all this when there was so much hatred against France, Napoleon’s entourage, to which the diplomat himself belonged? Talleyrand did it.

Metternich failed to prevent Russia's advance into the center of Europe and the creation of the Kingdom of Poland, but he was able to raise the question of the size of the new state. Austria retained its dominant position in both Germany and Italy. Metternich opposed the revival of the Holy Roman Empire led by the Habsburgs. Instead, he proposed the creation of a confederation of 38 member states, with Austria given the presidency of the general Diet, which was to meet in Frankfurt. Small states, fearing both the strengthening of Prussia and the national unification of Germany, had, of course, to support Austrian policies aimed at maintaining the status quo.

The intention to create a similar confederation in Italy did not materialize due to the resistance of the pope and the Naples king from the Bourbon dynasty, but Austrian dominance in the Apennine Peninsula was achieved by other means. Austria annexed Lombardy and Venice. In a number of lands in Central Italy - Tuscany, Parma, Modena - Habsburg princes ruled.

New territorial-state delimitation in Europe.

At the very beginning of the Congress of Vienna, its main participants almost quarreled among themselves over the division of those lands in Europe, which they considered their rightful reward for their contribution to the victory over Napoleon.

Russia, which played an extremely important role in the final stage of the Napoleonic Wars, actively sought to satisfy its territorial claims. It demanded that other countries recognize the legality of Finland joining it in 1809 and Bessarabia in 1812. Sharp disagreements arose between Austria and Prussia in connection with the latter's intention to seize Saxony - a relatively small German state, the whole fault of which was that it was a loyal ally of Napoleonic France: Saxony continued to fight on its side even when all its other allies had already left.

In the end, Russia and Prussia managed to come to an agreement among themselves. Prussia agreed to transfer the territory of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw to Russia in exchange for agreeing to support its claims to Saxony. However, other states stubbornly refused to make any concessions.

The contradictions reached such intensity that it seemed that a split between yesterday's allies was inevitable. On January 3, 1815, Great Britain, France and the Austrian Empire entered into a secret military alliance, actually directed against Russia and Prussia. There was a smell of a new war in Europe.

Napoleon's attempt to regain the throne (known as the "Hundred Days") was very costly for France. On November 8 (20), 1815, the allies concluded a new peace treaty with her, according to which she lost a number of fortresses on the eastern border, as well as Savoy and Nice, and pledged to pay 700 million francs. indemnities. In addition, for a period of 3 to 5 years, France was subject to occupation by a 150,000-strong Allied army, which it itself had to support.

These actions of Napoleon and the fear of the “usurper” that gripped European courts helped smooth out the contradictions between the powers and pushed them to mutual concessions. As a result, Russia received the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, Poznan remained part of Prussia, Galicia was retained by Austria, and Krakow was proclaimed a “free city.” As part of Russia, Polish lands received the status of an autonomous Kingdom (Kingdom) of Poland. In addition, participants in the Congress of Vienna recognized Russia's rights to Finland and Bessarabia. In both cases this was done in violation of historical law. The territory of the Duchy of Warsaw never belonged to Russia, and ethnically (language, religion) it had little in common with it. The same can be said about Finland, which has long been the possession of the Swedish kings. As part of Russia, it was an autonomous Grand Duchy (principality) of Finland.

As compensation for the loss of Finland, Sweden, as an active participant in the wars against Napoleonic France, received Norway. This country was in a union with Denmark for several centuries. What did Denmark do wrong before the allies? The fact that until the last moment she maintained an alliance with Napoleon, although the most shrewd European monarchs managed to break with him in time.

The dispute between Prussia and Austria over Saxony was settled amicably. Prussia eventually received part of Saxony, although it counted on its entire territory. But this was strongly opposed by Austria, which wanted to maintain a small, as they said then, buffer state between itself and Prussia. According to the views of that time, the presence of small states along the perimeter of their borders was considered by major powers as the most important guarantee of their own security. Prussia was quite content with this solution to the controversial issue, since it additionally received vast territories: Westphalia and the Rhineland in western Germany, part of the Polish lands, including Poznan and Thorn, as well as Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen.

Austria also did not remain offended. Part of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw was returned to her, as well as possessions on the Balkan Peninsula, previously taken away by Napoleon. But Austria received the main reward for its contribution to the war against Napoleonic France in Northern Italy. She has been there since the beginning of the 18th century. owned Lombardy (capital Milan). Now in addition to this she received the territory of the Venetian Republic, including Dalmatia. The small states of central Italy - Tosca - ;| on, Parma, Modena, etc.

The small Sardinian kingdom (capital Turin), captured by the French back in the 90s of the 18th century, was restored as an independent state. Savoy and Nice, previously annexed by France, were returned to him. In recognition of its merits, it received the territory of the Genoese Republic, which was abolished at one time by the French and was never restored at the end of the Napoleonic Wars.

The fate of the largest republics of the Middle Ages - Genoese and Venetian - abolished by Napoleon and not restored by the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, was shared by the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). Its territory, together with the Southern Netherlands, as well as Luxembourg, became part of the rather large Kingdom of the Netherlands. Such a state did not exist before. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was supposed to serve as a buffer between France and the German states, which saw in it an additional guarantee of their security.

The Swiss Confederation was preserved by the Congress of Vienna and received the status of a neutral state.

The principle of legitimism in its historical interpretation fully triumphed in Spain, where the Bourbon dynasty was restored, and in southern Italy. European monarchs decided not to restore the Holy Roman Empire to the German people. In fact, they came to terms with many of the territorial changes that Napoleon carried out in Germany. In particular, they did not live up to the hopes of the rulers of the hundreds of small estates he abolished. Most of them dissolved into Austria, Prussia or other larger German states.

At the Congress of Vienna, it was decided to form a new confederation within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire called the German Confederation. If in the Holy Roman Empire the relations between the head (emperor) and the members of the Empire (individual states) were of a feudal nature - the emperor was a lord, and the heads of individual states were his vassals - then in the German Confederation relations between members of the confederation were built on the basis of a treaty.

These decisions on territorial issues were for the most part enshrined in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. It also contained a declaration on freedom of river routes. As an annex to it, a declaration was adopted on the prohibition of the slave trade and regulations on the ranks of diplomatic representatives.

But not all the issues that caused concern to the powers and were discussed during the congress were reflected in the Final Act. In particular, it said nothing about the French and Dutch colonies captured by Great Britain during the war. Ultimately, she managed to retain the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea, the Cape Colony in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

Main decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

Belgium was annexed to Holland, which became the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw going to Russia. Prussia acquired parts of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was returned to the lands seized from it during the Napoleonic wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Venetian Republic, as well as Salzburg and some other territories were annexed to the Austrian Empire. Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that it “represents nothing more than a geographical concept,” was again fragmented into a number of states, given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the duchies of Modena and Parma came into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the temporal power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne. The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number of German states was reduced by almost 10 times. Nevertheless, Germany's political fragmentation remained. There were 38 states left in Germany, which, together with Austria, only formally united into the German Confederation. The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial seizures made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies. The borders of Switzerland were somewhat expanded, and Congress declared it a permanently neutral state. In Spain, back in April 1814, the Spanish Bourbon monarchy was restored. The “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna, developed as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815. Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to maintain peace and maintain the immutability of territorial borders.

VIENNA CONGRESS(1814–1815), a peace conference of European states in Vienna in September 1814 - June 1815 to resolve the political situation in Europe in the face of the defeat of Napoleonic France. Convened under the terms of the Treaty of Paris of May 30, 1814 between France and the Sixth Coalition (Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia), which was later joined by Spain, Portugal and Sweden.

In September 1814, preliminary negotiations between the victorious countries took place in Vienna, attempting to develop a common position before the start of the Congress; Russia was represented by Emperor Alexander I and diplomats Prince A.K. Razumovsky and Count K.V. Nesselrode, Austria by Emperor Franz I and Foreign Minister Prince K.L.V. Metternich, Great Britain by Foreign Minister Lord R.S. Castlereagh , Prussia - Chancellor K.A. Hardenberg and Minister of Education and Worship K.W. Humboldt. The negotiations, however, ended in failure due to serious contradictions between their participants. Russia laid claim to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon in 1807–1809 from Polish lands belonging to Austria and Prussia, but such a strengthening of Russia did not meet the interests of its allies. Prussia intended to annex Napoleon's allied Saxony, but this was strongly opposed by Austria, which intended to turn Germany into a federation of monarchies under its supremacy; The Austrian Habsburgs also planned to establish their hegemony in Italy. The allies were united in only one thing - to deprive France of its leading role in Europe and reduce its territory to the borders of 1792. On September 22, they agreed to remove France, along with Spain, Portugal and Sweden, from real participation in the work of the Congress. But the French delegation, headed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince C.-M. Talleyrand, which arrived in Vienna on September 23, managed to achieve full participation in the negotiations.

Congress opened in early November 1814; It was attended by 450 diplomats from 126 European states, with the exception of Turkey. Decisions were made at meetings of representatives of the five powers (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, France) or in special bodies - the Committee on German Affairs (created on October 14), the Committee on Swiss Affairs (November 14), the Statistical Commission (December 24), etc. .d.

The main and most pressing issue turned out to be the Polish-Saxon one. Even at the stage of preliminary negotiations (September 28), Russia and Prussia entered into a secret agreement, according to which Russia pledged to support Prussia’s claims to Saxony in exchange for support of its claims to the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. But these plans encountered opposition from France, which did not want to expand Prussian influence in Northern Germany. Appealing to the principle of legitimism (restoration of legal rights), C.-M. Talleyrand attracted Austria and small German states to his side. Under pressure from the French, the English government also changed its position in favor of the Saxon king Frederick Augustus I. In response, Russia withdrew its occupation forces from Saxony and transferred it to Prussian control (November 10). There was a threat of a split in the Sixth Coalition and a military conflict between Russia and Prussia with Great Britain, Austria and France. On December 7, the German states staged a collective protest against the Prussian occupation of Saxony. Then Russia and Prussia proposed to create a state on the left bank of the Rhine under the supremacy of Frederick Augustus I as compensation for his abandonment of Saxony, but this project was decisively rejected by the rest of the Congress. On January 3, 1815, R.S. Castlereagh, K.L. Metternich and C.-M. Talleyrand entered into a secret agreement that provided for coordinated actions on the Polish-Saxon issue. Russia and Prussia had to make concessions, and by February 10 the parties reached a compromise solution.

The subject of discussion at the Congress were other important issues - the political structure of Germany and the borders of German states, the status of Switzerland, the political situation in Italy, navigation on international rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Moselle, etc.), trade in blacks. Russia's attempt to raise the question of the position of the Christian population in the Ottoman Empire and granting it the right to intervene in its defense did not meet with the understanding of other powers.

One of the most difficult was the question of the Kingdom of Naples. France demanded that Napoleonic Marshal I. Murat be deprived of the Neapolitan throne and the local branch of the Bourbon dynasty restored; she managed to win Great Britain over to her side. However, the plans to overthrow Murat were opposed by Austria, which in January 1814 guaranteed the inviolability of his possessions as payment for betraying Napoleon and for going over to the side of the Sixth Coalition.

On March 1, 1815, Napoleon, leaving his place of exile on the island of Elba, landed in France. On March 13, the participating powers of the Peace of Paris outlawed him and promised assistance to the legitimate King Louis XVIII. However, already on March 20, the Bourbon regime fell; Murat, breaking off relations with his allies, invaded the Papal States. On March 25, Russia, Great Britain, Austria and Prussia formed the Seventh Anti-French Coalition. Napoleon's attempt to split it and come to an agreement with Alexander I failed. On April 12, Austria declared war on Murat and quickly defeated his army; On May 19, Bourbon power was restored in Naples. On June 9, representatives of the eight powers signed the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna.

According to its terms, Russia received most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Prussia abandoned Polish lands, retaining only Poznan, but acquired North Saxony, a number of areas on the Rhine (Rhine Province), Swedish Pomerania and the island of Rügen. South Saxony remained under the rule of Frederick Augustus I. In Germany, instead of the Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of almost two thousand states, abolished by Napoleon in 1806, the German Union arose, which included 35 monarchies and 4 free cities, under the leadership of Austria. Austria regained Eastern Galicia, Salzburg, Lombardy, Venice, Tyrol, Trieste, Dalmatia and Illyria; the thrones of Parma and Tuscany were occupied by representatives of the House of Habsburg; The Sardinian kingdom was restored, to which Genoa was transferred and Savoy and Nice were returned. Switzerland received the status of an eternally neutral state, and its territory expanded to include Wallis, Geneva and Neufchatel. Denmark lost Norway, which went to Sweden, but received Lauenburg and two million thalers for this. Belgium and Holland formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of the Orange dynasty; Luxembourg became part of it on the basis of a personal union. England secured the Ionian Islands and about. Malta, in the West Indies the island of Saint Lucia and the island of Tobago, in the Indian Ocean the Seychelles and the island of Ceylon, in Africa the Cape Colony; she achieved a complete ban on the slave trade.

The borders of France were established after the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (June 18) and the Bourbon restoration (July 8): the Second Peace of Paris on November 20, 1815 returned it to the borders of 1790.

The Congress of Vienna was the first attempt to establish lasting peace in Europe on the basis of a collective agreement of all European states; concluded agreements could not be terminated unilaterally, but they could be changed with the consent of all participants. To guarantee European borders, in September 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia created the Holy Alliance, which France joined in November. The Vienna System ensured a long period of peace and relative stability in Europe. However, it was vulnerable because it was based largely on the political-dynastic rather than the national principle and ignored the essential interests of many European peoples (Belgians, Poles, Germans, Italians); it consolidated the fragmentation of Germany and Italy under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs; Prussia found itself cut into two parts (western and eastern), which were in a hostile environment.

The Viennese system began to collapse in 1830–1831, when rebellious Belgium broke away from the Kingdom of the Netherlands and gained independence. The final blow was dealt to it by the Austro-Franco-Sardinian War of 1859, the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, as a result of which the united Italian and German states emerged.

Ivan Krivushin