Speech communication, speech behavior, speech act. All three terms are directly related to speech communication. The first is a synonym for the term “speech communication” . It is important to emphasize that both synonyms denote a two-way process, the interaction of people during communication. In contrast, the term “speech behavior” emphasizes the one-sidedness of the process: it denotes those properties and features that characterize the speech and speech reactions of one of the participants in the communicative situation - either the speaker (addresser) or the listener (addressee). The term “speech behavior” is convenient when describing monological forms of speech - for example, communicative situations of a lecture, speech at a meeting, at a rally, etc. However, it is insufficient when analyzing dialogue: in this case, it is important to reveal the mechanisms of mutual speech actions, and not just the speech behavior of each of the communicating parties. Thus, the concept of “verbal communication” includes the concept of “speech behavior”.

The term “speech act” refers to specific speech actions of the speaker within a particular communicative situation. For example, in the situation of purchasing a product on the market, a dialogue is possible between the buyer and seller, including various speech acts: a request for information ( - How much does this thing cost??Who is the manufacturer?What material is it made of??), message ( - Two thousand;South Korea;Genuine Leather), request ( – Set aside, please, I'll run for money), accusation ( – You gave me the wrong change!), threat ( - I’ll call the police now!), etc.

In the middle of the 20th century. The English philosopher J. Austin, and after him the American scientists J. Searle and G. Grice, developed a theory of speech acts, in which they identified a number of patterns characteristic of the process of speech communication, and formulated principles and postulates, following which ensures the success of a particular speech act. act and verbal communication in general: for example, “express yourself clearly,” “be sincere,” “be brief,” “avoid unclear expressions,” etc.

3. Multifaceted nature of communication

Communication - a complex multifaceted process of establishing and developing contacts between people, generated by the needs for joint activities and including the exchange of information, the development of a unified interaction strategy, people’s perception and understanding of each other. This definition highlights three aspects of communication, namely: transmission of information (communication), interaction (interaction), and people’s knowledge of each other (perception).

Communication can be most fully studied in the unity of all three aspects; let us present them in a general form, and in the future we will consider each aspect in more detail.

When they talk about communications in the narrow sense of the word, they mean that in the course of joint activities people exchange with each other various ideas, ideas, interests, moods, feelings, attitudes, etc. The set of information that people exchange with each other can be considered as information, and the process of communication itself as an exchange of information. It is considered how information is transmitted, formed, clarified, and developed in communication conditions. What you need to consider for the most effective communication. Communication barriers that complicate the communication process are considered. Methods of transmitting information (verbal and non-verbal communication).

Communication as people’s perception of each other (perception) Effective communication is impossible without correct perception, assessment, and mutual understanding of partners. Interpersonal perception or social perception is a complex process of perceiving the external signs of a person, correlating them with personal characteristics and interpreting actions and behavior on this basis.

The term “social perception” was coined by the American psychologist J. Bruner (1947) to denote the fact of social conditioning of perception, its dependence not only on the nature of the stimulus (object), but also on the past experience of the subject, his goals, intentions, and awareness of the significance of the situation. Later, social perception began to be understood as the subject’s holistic perception of not only objects of the material world, but also social objects (other people, groups, classes, nationalities), and social situations.

Based on the perception of a person, a person forms an idea of ​​the intentions, thoughts, abilities, emotions, attitudes of a communication partner and determines his own behavior. This process of interpersonal perception is carried out from two sides: each of the communication partners likens itself to the other. Consequently, when people interact in joint activities, not only the needs, motives and attitudes of one person, but also all people participating in communication must be taken into account.

Communication as interaction (interaction) – interaction of people in the process of communication, organization of joint activities. During communication, it is important for participants not only to exchange information, but also to organize an exchange of actions and plan a common strategy. When we interact with others on various occasions, we choose behavioral strategies appropriate to the situations. Scientists are trying to organize the diverse types of interaction, to create a holistic picture that models the richness of communication. The most common was the dichotomous division: cooperation and competition, agreement and conflict, adaptation and opposition.

Pedagogical communication

Pedagogical communication- specific interpersonal interaction between a teacher and a pupil (student), mediating the acquisition of knowledge and the formation of personality in the educational process.

Often pedagogical communication is defined in psychology as the interaction of subjects of the pedagogical process, carried out by sign means and aimed at significant changes in the properties, states, behavior and personal and semantic formations of partners. Communication is an integral element of pedagogical activity; outside of it, it is impossible to achieve the goals of training and education (Leontyev A.A., 1996)

Pedagogical communication is the main form of implementation of the pedagogical process. Its productivity is determined, first of all, by the goals and values ​​of communication, which must be accepted by all subjects of the pedagogical process as an imperative for their individual behavior.

The main goal of pedagogical communication is both the transfer of social and professional experience (knowledge, abilities, skills) from the teacher to students, and the exchange of personal meanings associated with the objects being studied and life in general. In communication, the formation (i.e., the emergence of new properties and qualities) of the individuality of both students and teachers occurs (Cialdini R., 2001)

Pedagogical communication creates conditions for the realization of the potential essential forces of the subjects of the pedagogical process.
The highest value of pedagogical communication is the individuality of the teacher and the student. The teacher’s own dignity and honor, the dignity and honor of students are the most important value of pedagogical communication.

In connection with this leading principle of pedagogical communication, I. Kant’s imperative can be accepted: always treat oneself and students as the goal of communication, as a result of which an ascent to individuality occurs. An imperative is an unconditional requirement. It is this ascent to individuality in the process of communication that is an expression of the honor and dignity of the subjects of communication

Pedagogical communication should focus not only on human dignity as the most important value of communication. Ethical values ​​such as honesty, frankness, selflessness, trust, mercy, gratitude, care, and faithfulness to one’s word are of great importance for productive communication.

A significant amount of research has been devoted to the problem of pedagogical communication, the analysis of which reveals several aspects in its study. First of all, this is the determination of the structure and conditions for the formation of a teacher’s communicative skills (V. A. Kan-Kalik, Yu. N. Emelyanov, G. A. Kovalev, A. A. Leontyev, etc.). In this aspect, methods of active social learning (ASL) have been developed: role-playing games, socio-psychological trainings, discussions, etc. With their help, teachers master methods of interaction and develop sociability. Another direction is the study of the problem of mutual understanding between teachers and students (A. A. Bodalev, S. V. Kondratyeva, etc.). They are significant due to the fact that contact is possible only in conditions of sufficiently complete mutual understanding between those communicating, the achievement of which requires the search for certain conditions and techniques. A special group of studies consists of those that study the norms implemented in pedagogical communication. First of all, these are studies on the problem of pedagogical ethics and tact (E. A. Grishin, I. V. Strakhov, etc.).

text - a unit of communication created to achieve communication goals.

the process of creating an utterance is a choice not only of language forms, but also of a mandatory form of construction that corresponds to the goals and objectives of communication, the nature of the addressee, the specifics of the sphere and situation of communication.

speech genres - relatively stable thematic, compositional, and stylistic forms of expression.

Information content. is inherent only to the text. The content of any completed text is information. types of information: content-factual, content-subtextual. facts, events.

Connectedness and integrity (integrity). all communicative elements of the text must be connected. the integrity of the text is carried out using such means as person, tense, mood, models and types of sentences for setting the purpose of the utterance, syntactic parallelism, word order.

Integration and completeness. the category of integration solders and unites the text not linearly, but vertically, providing cause-and-effect relationships between its parts, selecting those that are most essential for conveying the conceptual position of the author of the text.

12. Stages of speech activity and the rhetorical canon as the basis for actions to create a text.

1) Speech activity– a way of realizing a person’s social and communicative needs in the process of communication. Speech is a means of forming and formulating thoughts, which determines the creative intellectual nature of speech activity.

2) Speech activity– textual activity, based on the ability to create and perceive statements (texts) in the process of verbal communication.

Need to consider:

Full-fledged (effective) speech activity is based on subject-subject relationships between communicants, when the interlocutors become equal subjects of communication

Effective speech activity is realized primarily in dialogue (in a broad sense), in an interactive form of communication, which creates the basis for joint reflection in search of truth, knowledge, ideas that transform the idea of ​​reality

Productive types of speech activity - speaking and writing - involve the creation of texts in oral and written form.

Stages of speech activity

Incentive-motivational (the emergence of a motive for speech activity. A situation arises that encourages a person to express his point of view)

Approximate stage (one of the most important in the process of generating a statement. Thinking, planning... selection of a method of implementation occurs. The general idea of ​​​​the future statement arises)

The executive stage completes the process of creating or perceiving an utterance. Voicing the idea.

Control - “has the goal set at the initial stage of speech activity been achieved?”

Rhetorical canon:

Stage I – invention (lat. - invention - invention) - invention is the content of speech. At this stage, the speaker creates a general plan for his future speech, thinks about the subject he is going to talk about, identifies the most important things in the topic, selects and systematizes materials, and chooses methods of evidence.

Stage II – disposition(Latin dispositio - arrangement) - arrangement of the invented in the proper order. At this stage, the speaker thinks about the order of thoughts in the speech, makes a plan, and thinks about how to start and end the speech.

Stage III – elocation(Latin elocutio - verbal expression) - speech design of the text. The stage at which the speaker expresses his own thoughts in specific words and sentences takes care not only of the correctness, clarity, and appropriateness of the use of linguistic units, but also decorates the speech using figures and tropes.

Stage IV – memorio(Latin memorio - memorization) - remembering a speech and preparing for its delivery. At this stage, the speaker prepares the text for delivery, selects auxiliary techniques, memorizes the text and rehearses.

Stage V – accio(Latin actio - utterance) - uttering a speech. At the last stage, the speaker comes into contact with the listeners, applies all the prepared techniques, acts out the speech using facial expressions, gestures, body movements, establishes and maintains contact with the listeners.

How speech works. Ontogenesis of speech function (stages of speech development). Speech is an integral part of the harmonious development of children. Often parents do not attach importance to deviations in speech development, but practice shows that early speech therapy correction of speech problems is much more effective. Therefore, it is very important to know the stages of speech development in children.

How speech works

Speech is a complex process in which two closely interacting mechanisms can be distinguished: internal speech and external speech.

Inner speech (speech understanding)

Speech understanding is formed through speech hearing. This is the ability to distinguish speech sounds from each other; with its help, the child begins to recognize words and distinguish them from each other. Speech hearing is developed during the first year of life. In children with developmental disorders, hearing is formed much later and with the help of different techniques and exercises.

External speech (or the child's own speech)

It develops on the basis of inner speech. The child tries to reproduce the sounds of the language and words that he hears from the outside. His speech hearing evaluates the result. And if imitation is unsuccessful, the child continues to look for new, more accurate ways of pronouncing. So he gradually learns to speak.

Stages of speech development

In the development of speech, all children go through the same stages, but the individual characteristics of each child leave their mark on the picture of his speech development and can cause deviations. These deviations most often relate to the age at which certain speech abilities arise. Sometimes these deviations do not go beyond the norm, and sometimes the formation of speech in a child is delayed, and then they talk about a delay in his speech development.

The active formation of speech in children begins almost from birth (there is an opinion that it begins in the prenatal period). First, understanding of speech appears, then one’s own, external speech develops.

Speech understanding develops on the basis of phonemic (speech) hearing. Already in the first month of life, the child distinguishes human speech from other sounds. At three months, he recognizes his mother’s voice and distinguishes intonations.

By about five months, he understands some words and the most frequent calls (Let's eat. Give me a pen.).

After six to seven months, speech understanding develops rapidly, but depends on the child’s natural abilities, as well as on the speech environment in which he is located.

The child also develops his own speech immediately after birth. The first manifestation of speech is a cry, then vowel sounds appear. In the second month, the baby begins to laugh. At three months, humming appears (long-drawn repetition of vowel sounds combined with consonants AA, A-GU, etc.), then babbling appears (pronouncing more complex combinations of sounds, including repetition of the syllables BA-BA, PA-PA , MOTHER).
But all these initial experiences of pronunciation are not yet the result of deliberate imitation of speech sounds, but are produced by the child unconsciously, instinctively.

The formation of one’s own meaningful speech, strange as it may seem, begins with a gesture. The first to appear is the pointing gesture and the gesture with which the child reaches for the object. In fact, these gestures depict actions and are peculiar analogues of verbs (look at or do something with this object and give).

Then words join gestures, but they never completely supplant gesticulation. The gesture is, as it were, included in the internal semantic structure of the word, “collapsed”, sometimes even to the point of “internal” gesticulation, barely noticeable to the eye. In an adult, sign language always accompanies normal speech, and sometimes somewhat precedes it (as if “launching” it). So the important role of gesture in speech remains forever.

After about six months, the child begins to consciously imitate speech sounds and pronounce chains of sounds reminiscent of words. By the end of the first year, he appears the first simple words (dai, mama, baba), as well as truncated forms of more complex words.

After a year, too many individual characteristics and originality appear in the speech development of children, so that it becomes difficult to somehow typify it. In general, by the age of one and a half years, a child should have a simple phrase (action + object). Words in these phrases may not be fully pronounced, and parts of the sentence may be omitted.

By the age of two, a child should be able to pronounce a sentence of three to four words. It’s time for him to start formalizing his speech grammatically (not always yet, of course), that is, to use endings (for example, the plural, including incorrectly: doll - dolls), it’s time to use some suffixes (for example, diminutive), prefixes ( came, went). At this age, it is the level of development of phrasal speech, and not the richness of the vocabulary, that determines how favorable the child’s speech situation is.

After two years, a normally developing child already understands speech well and correctly follows available instructions. By the age of three, he should have formed a complex (of several words), full-fledged, well-formed phrase using prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, that is, almost all linguistic means. For this age, it is considered normal to incorrectly pronounce certain sounds: most often (P), (L), hissing and whistling.

Thus, by the age of three, the development of a child’s speech is basically and in principle completed, and its further development consists of gradual improvement and complication of already established linguistic forms.

Features of speech development in children with intellectual disabilities

A characteristic feature of the speech development of children with intellectual disabilities is the late development of speech. A sharp lag is observed already in the period of pre-speech vocalizations (babble appears in the period from 12 to 24 months). The first words appear later than 3 years, sometimes from 2.5 to 5 years (normally, the appearance of the first words in children is from 10 to 18 months). The appearance of phrasal speech also lags significantly behind.

Speech disorders in mentally retarded children are characterized by persistence; they are eliminated with great difficulty, remaining for life.

In children with mental retardation:

1. Phonemic (speech) hearing suffers, and hence such disorders as defects in sound pronunciation, underdevelopment of grammatical structure (agrammatisms), dyslexia, and dysgraphia.
2. There is a violation of general motor skills, in particular articulatory motor skills. These two disorders together give rise to a sensorimotor defect (distinctive - pronunciation).
3. Impaired motivation, decreased need for verbal communication.
4. Poor dictionary, big gap between active and passive dictionaries.

Children with mental retardation can experience all forms of speech disorders: alalia, dysarthria, rhinolalia, dysphonia, dyslexia, dysgraphia, stuttering, etc.

The peculiarity of speech disorders in mentally retarded children is that the dominant defect in their structure is a semantic defect. Speech disorders in mentally retarded children manifest themselves against the background of gross impairment of cognitive activity and abnormal mental development in general. Speech disorders are systemic in nature, i.e. speech as an integral functional system suffers.

Types of speech disorders:

Alalia is a violation of the development of language ability in children with normal hearing and primarily intact intelligence. Occurs with organic brain lesions in the pre-speech period.

Dysarthria– a violation of the sound-pronunciation and prosodic aspects of speech, caused by insufficient innervation of the speech apparatus. Dysarthria is a Latin term and translated means disorders of articulate speech. The term “dysarthria” combines all forms of sound pronunciation disorders: from distortion of sounds (fuzzy, slurred speech) to nasal, slurred, hard-to-hear pronunciation.

Rhinolalia– pathological change in voice timbre and distorted pronunciation of speech sounds as a result of disruption of the normal participation of the nasal cavity in the process of speech formation.

Stuttering is a violation of the tempo-rhythmic organization of speech, caused by the convulsive state of the muscles of the speech apparatus.

Dysphonia (aphonia)– absence or disorder of phonation due to pathological changes in the vocal apparatus.

Dyslexia– partial specific disorder of the reading process.

Dysgraphia– partial specific violation of the writing process.

The consequence of the above-mentioned features of speech development in mentally retarded children are vocal, prosodic and articulatory-phonemic defects. All this significantly impairs the intelligibility, intelligibility, smoothness and clarity of speech.

The development of speech in a child is not only an element of socialization, but also an important indicator of the development of intelligence. With the advent of all kinds of electronic devices in recent decades, the need for people to communicate verbally has decreased, including the need for parents to communicate with their children.

In this regard, in practice, I increasingly began to notice a shift in the timing of speech development; children have a reduced incentive to verbally express their needs. Most parents don't pay attention to this. However, this may be a sign of delayed development of the child in general and speech development in particular. Usually in such cases, doctors prescribe drug treatment, this helps stimulate the development of the articulatory apparatus and creates favorable conditions for speech therapy, which is carried out by a speech therapist.

However, it is not always worth resorting to treatment with medications; it is much more effective to consult a speech therapist in the early stages, when, perhaps, the problem has not yet formed.

When counseling children, unfortunately, we constantly hear from parents that experts recommended correcting violations at the age of 5-6 years, “before school,” “later,” “when the child is ready.”

Mastering speech skills is a complex process that occurs differently for each child. It includes the formation of spoken language, understanding of spoken words, expression of one’s own thoughts, emotions, desires using language.

The correctness and success of mastering speech skills depends largely on the environment and the characteristics of upbringing in the family and educational institutions. Today we will talk about what stages of speech development exist, and also find out the normative deadlines corresponding to each age period.

The role of speech in the psychological development of a child is difficult to overestimate. This is why obvious speech disorders lead to a number of negative consequences:

• the baby’s development of cognitive processes slows down;
• character traits develop that interfere with communication with others (withdrawal, indecisiveness, low self-esteem);
• Difficulties arise in mastering school skills - writing and reading, which reduces children's academic performance.

To reduce the risk of such violations, it is important to know the sequence in which children learn the rules of their native language and the norms for the formation of speech skills.

Main stages of speech development

Russian psycholinguist and psychologist Alexey Leontyev identified several important periods of speech development through which every baby goes.

1. Preparatory stage lasts from birth to one year, divided into three periods:

• Crying is the only way a newborn can interact with the outside world and the first vocal reaction. With its help, the baby not only signals to his mother that he feels discomfort, but also trains breathing, voice and articulation;
• humming (up to 6 months) is the baby’s reproduction of certain sounds and their various variations: boo-oo-oo, a-gu, a-gy, etc. Psychologists call the baby during this period a musician who tunes his instrument. It is very important to support the child’s desire to communicate by speaking and repeating “what your child has said”;
• babbling (up to one year) is the final stage of preparing the baby for full speech. Now the baby begins to pronounce syllables, for example, “pa”, “ba”, which are associated with certain people. “Ma-ma,” says the child, addressing his mother.

Read also: The child does not speak at 3 years old. Causes and solutions to the problem

1. Pre-school stage begins with the appearance of the first words (usually from 12 months) and ends at the age of three.

Children's first words are general in nature. For example, with the word “give” the baby denotes an object, his desires, and a request. That’s why only close people understand the baby and only in a specific situation.

From the age of one and a half, children learn to pronounce words in full, and not in a truncated form. The vocabulary continues to grow, the child puts together small sentences without prepositions: “Katya kitty” (Katya has a cat), “Katya am-am” (Katya wants to eat).

By the age of three, questions appear in children’s speech: “Where?”, “Where?”, “When?”. The baby begins to actively use prepositions, learns to coordinate words in number, case and gender.

1. Preschool stage Speech development lasts from three to seven years. At this time, the volume of active and passive vocabulary increases significantly. If children of the fourth year of life often use simple sentences in speech, then by the age of five they already communicate in complex and complex sentences. And by the end of the preschool stage, children usually pronounce sounds correctly, construct sentences correctly and have a broad outlook.

Speech development norms by age

Is everything okay? Many mothers ask this question, worrying that their babies speak few words, their speech is slurred, etc. We offer the boundaries of normal speech development, with the help of which you can monitor the development of language skills in your child.

At 6 months the baby:

• reproduces sounds with intonation;
• reacts to his own name (turns his head);
• is interested in sound sources, especially if they come from significant adults;
• reacts by crying or smiling to a friendly or angry tone.

At 12 months the baby:

• uses several simple words (or fragments thereof) in speech;
• follows simple instructions, especially if mom gestures for what to take or bring.

Read also: Speech development according to Maria Montessori's method

At 18 months children:

• have an active vocabulary of up to 20 words, mostly nouns;
• echolalia is often used in speech - repeating a heard phrase over and over again;
• show one of the body parts at the request of the parents (“Where is the nose?”);
• they speak “gibberish” in an emotional and slurred manner.

At 2 years old the child:

• names several familiar objects from his environment;
• composes the simplest sentences, most often consisting of verbs and nouns - “Kisya bites” (the cat eats);
• shows five parts of the body at mother’s request (“Where is your nose?”);
• can use up to 150-300 words in speech;
• knows and uses several pronouns – “mine”, “mine”, “mine”;
• skips a number of sounds - zh, sh, z, s, r, l, ts, shch (“mosno” instead of “possible”).

At 3 years old children:

• have an active vocabulary of 1000 words, usually verbs;
• begin to use plural nouns;
• know the main parts of the body and can show and name them;
• use conjunctions “if”, “when”, “because”;
• state their gender, name and age;
• understand short tales and poems told and read;
• understand simple questions and answer them more often in monosyllables.

At 4 years old kids:

• use up to 2000 words in speech;
• reduce, rearrange and omit words less;
• answer questions, retell well-known stories and fairy tales;
• sometimes hissing and whistling sounds are pronounced incorrectly;
• they ask a lot of questions - both simple and quite unexpected;
• They speak in compound and complex sentences - “I hit Vasya because he took the typewriter.”

At 5 years old a child:

• expands your vocabulary to 2500-3000 words;
• can make up a story based on a picture;
• applies generalizing concepts (flowers, wild animals, shoes, transport, etc.);
• uses all parts of speech in sentences - adjectives, pronouns, participles, interjections, etc.;
• speaks a language understandable to adults, although there are also errors in stress and declension of nouns;
• pronounces all sounds clearly, identifying vowels and consonants, hard and soft.

Language and speech are two aspects of speech activity, which includes two opposite processes - the process of generating speech and the process of its perception.

Speech exists in two forms - oral and written. In this case, the oral form of speech is primary, the written form is secondary.

Oral speech is spoken loudly and perceived by ear, and written speech is speech encoded using graphic signs and perceived through the organs of vision.

Oral speech has means of sound expressiveness: intonation, tempo, strength and timbre of sound, pauses and logical stress.

In modern society, the role of written speech is increasing and its influence on oral speech is increasing; Versions of oral speech based on written language are rapidly developing: reports; speeches, television and radio broadcasts.

Oral speech includes such types of speech activity (types of speech) as speaking and listening.

Written speech includes types of speech activities such as writing and reading.

Stages of speech production

Speech is the activity of using language for the purpose of communication.

It is customary to distinguish four stages of any activity:

• 1) stage of orientation in the conditions of activity;
• 2) the stage of developing an action plan in accordance with the results of the orientation;
• 3) the stage of implementation of this plan;
• 4) control stage.

Let's consider the structure of a speech act.

1. Orientation stage. A speech act is possible only when a speech situation, a situation of communication, has taken shape or has been specially created. Speech situations can be natural, which develop as a result of communication between people, and artificial, which are created specifically for the purposes of training and speech development.

The teacher’s task is to create speech situations in the classroom that would have great developmental potential and would generate a motive for speech in students.

Speech, being a means of thinking, has a decisive influence on overall development and at the same time depends on this development.

• 2. Planning stage. At this stage it happens topic definition statements and main idea. In addition, the plan of the utterance as a whole, its structure, and composition are determined.
• 3. Statement implementation stage. It consists of two parts:
  • A) Lexical and grammatical structuring. This is the choice of words to express. Lexical structuring is carried out by first extracting parts of speech from the speaker’s memory, and then selecting thematic vocabulary within the parts of speech, i.e. words corresponding to the topic of this statement and the chosen style of speech. Grammatical construction is the arrangement of selected words in the desired sequence and their grammatical linking.
• 4. Control stage. The speaker evaluates the result of his speech, its effect.

Stages of a speech act

• 1. Orientation. Children should be taught how to navigate a communication situation, on the basis of which certain language means will then be selected.
• 2. Planning. Planning for future speech has always been given great importance. The ability to determine the topic, the main idea of ​​the text, are the main speech skills that are formed in the process of learning the native language.
• 3. Implementation.
• a) in the process of learning a language, the vocabulary and grammatical structure of students’ speech should be enriched.
• b) children should be taught the norms of oral and written speech, paying special attention to spelling, spelling, teaching intonation and means of expression.
• 4. Control. At school, it is important to work to prevent and eliminate speech errors and purposefully develop the skills of conscious reading and understanding of texts.