Particles are a rather nebulous area of ​​the English language. Since there is no complete unanimity among linguists regarding what should be classified as particles in the English language and what should not be considered. As a rule, one of the first particles that we encounter when learning English is the forming particle to (it is important not to confuse it with the preposition to, but this is not what our article is about). Phrasal verbs are formed using postpositions (prepositions that appear after the word they refer to), often referred to as particles. For example, getup,goon etc. Most prepositions are also considered particles. In this article, strictly speaking, we will consider a special class called focusing modifiers in English, and in modern grammars it is classified as a class of particles.

A particle- an auxiliary part of speech that does not change, does not have a grammatical category, as well as its own lexical meaning and is not a member of the sentence. Particles add additional semantic nuances and stand immediately before (less often after) the word(s) to which they refer in meaning.

Classification of English particles

English particles are divided into five groups. However, many of them belong to several groups at once. The table shows the most commonly used particles, but not all of them.

Let's discuss the uses of else in more detail:

• What/ How/ Who + else = one more thing/another thing (i.e. addition to what has already been said)
  E.g. Whatelse doyoudo? (What else do you do?)

How else did you speak to? (Who else were you talking to?)

• When/Where/Why + else = otherwise

E.g. Ihavefoundabetterplace.Whyelse I would be quitting?
(I found a better job, otherwise why would I quit?)

• Else occurs both in combinations with someone/somebody (someone/someone) and with somewhere/something (somewhere/something).

E.g. If we can’t go to Paris, let’s go somewhere els e

(If we can't go to Paris, let's go somewhere else?)

I can't translate it, find somebody else.

(I can't translate this, ask someone else).

• Anyone/anybody (anyone) or anywhere/anything (anywhere/anything)+else

E.g. It's anywhere else I'd rather be than here.

(I would rather be anywhere else than here).

• No one/nobody (nobody) or nowhere/nothing (nowhere/nothing) + else

E.g. Nobody else is coming to the party. Only you.
(Won't come to the party more no one but you).

• Everybody/everything (all/everything) + else
  g. He'll do it. Everybody else is at home.
  (He will do it. All rest already home).

NB! Else is not used with which or whose, or with plural words.

Correct: someone else
Incorrect: some people else

Particles vs. other parts of speech

The shape of the particles coincides not only with adverbs, but also with other parts of speech, in particular adjectives and pronouns. You can understand what is in front of you by subjecting a sentence/statement to a test - whether the supposed particle has its own meaning or not.

Particles belong to the auxiliary part of speech, the function of which is to introduce additional or restrictive semantic shades. English particles do not change their shape in any way, are not endowed with grammatical categories and cannot be considered as members of a sentence.

English particles can be divided into several semantic categories:

Restrictive-excretory , for example: only - only, even - even, but - but, only - just, only - alone, just - merely. Their task is to emphasize a word or limit the meaning that it conveys, for example:

• — It was merely a mirage. – It was just a mirage.
• — Jane only wants to visit her sister. Jane only wants to visit her sister.
• — Even Elisabeth ate cakes. “Even Elizabeth ate cakes.”
• — Even if they win, our team will remain the best. – Even if they win, our team will remain the best.
• — Her daughter eats nothing but potatoes. – Her daughter eats nothing but potatoes.

Amplifiers, serving to enhance the semantics of a certain word, for example: even - even, for now - yet, still - still, absolutely - all, but, just - just, simply - simply, only - only, never, for example:

• — Robert can`t leave Sarah all alone! “Robert can’t leave Sarah all alone!”
• — Jane has just to buy flowers. All Jane has to do is buy flowers.
• — Their customers demanded still better quality. “Their customers demanded even better quality.
• — If Jack only could visit her! “If only Jack could visit her!”

Clarification, specifying the meanings of the corresponding words, for example: directly - right, exactly - exactly, exactly - precisely, only - just, for example:

• — Your children have to stand right behind that red line. “Your children should stand right behind that red line.”
• — Her husband must be at the hotel precisely at four o`clock p.m. “Her husband should be at the hotel at exactly four o’clock in the afternoon.”

Negative the particle “neither”, which can also act in an intensifying function, for example:

• — Not all her charges were reasonable. “Not all of her accusations were reasonable.”
• — There was not a single car available for rent. – There wasn’t a single car at the rental.

Complementary particle “else”, for example:

• — Could George repeat anything else? – Was George able to add anything else?
• — What else can Jane cook for your cousin to make his day? “What else can Jane cook for your cousin to please him?”

From the above examples, we can see the fact that some particles are characterized by ambiguity, which allows them to be classified into different groups. First of all, particles are so polysemantic but, just, only, not .

In most cases, particles in English speech precede the words whose meaning they affect; in rare cases they take place behind such words, for example:

• — Not all the pupils were ready to help Elisabeth. – Not all the students were ready to help Elizabeth.
• — During April alone James` losses made US$ ten million. – During the month of April alone, James’s losses amounted to ten million US dollars.

In speech, the shape of particles can often coincide with the shape of words belonging to other parts of speech. To distinguish particles from other parts of speech, it is necessary to remember that they (particles) are auxiliary, and, therefore, no properties, qualities and signs (like adjectives), no signs of various actions (like adverbs) and no objects or signs (like pronouns) cannot denote. Particles are not endowed with any meaning of their own and are only capable of emphasizing, clarifying, and highlighting the meanings of other significant words. For example:

• — Did James come back yet? – James hasn’t returned yet (adverb)?
• — Alan`s relatives have yet a new big problem. – Alan’s relatives have another new big problem (particle).
• — Mary`s train has just pulled in. – Mary’s train has just arrived (adverb).
• — Just don`t drink milk! – Just don’t drink milk (particle)!

The use of particles in speech is extremely important, since their use brings to the surface a certain hidden meaning inherent in the statement and emphasizes the logical connections between different statements. Particles can also enhance the expressiveness of statements, that is, their speech impact on interlocutors. The absence of particles even in competent English speech can lead to the perception of such speech as impolite, rude, etc. The meaning of English particles is closely related to the context and can be a difficult task when translating.

If the Russian language is flooded with particles, then English is not rich in them at all. This fact creates considerable problems in the work of translators and significantly affects the accuracy of translation and the overall translatability of texts, for example:

• — Their meeting was over all too late. – Their meeting ended too late. – The additional strengthening of “uzh” in addition to “too” seems somewhat unnecessary and not very natural for the Russian language, which cannot be said about the English text.
• — All too easily Sarah might recover. – Sarah could well recover. – Here, the double amplification of the particle “easily” is quite difficult to translate into Russian, however, it is completely natural for the English language.

A And an are called the indefinite article. The is called the definite article.

Indefinite article a used before words beginning with a consonant: a face a camera a used before u And eu when they are pronounced like y (/j/): a university, a euro.

Indefinite article an used before words starting with a vowel sound: an arm, an onion Also the indefinite article an used before words starting with h, When h unreadable: an hour, an honor.

A series of articles will soon appear on the blog in which the use of articles will be discussed in detail. This article only covers the main points.

A/an

Indefinite article a/an came from the numeral one, and is used only with singular countable nouns.

The indefinite article is used in the following cases:

• When we talk about a person and an object that mentioned for the first time, and is unknown to the interlocutor or reader.

I've been to a concert recently. — I recently went to a concert.

I live in a small town. - I live in a small town.

• When we talk about any a person or object from some class.

A triangle has three sides. — A triangle has three sides.

• With titles professions or type of activity.

My brother is a pilot, and I am a student. — My brother is a pilot, and I am a student.

The

Definite article the derived from the demonstrative pronoun that, and is used with countable nouns in both singular and plural.

The definite article is used in the following cases:

• When we talk about a person or thing that previously mentioned in conversation or text.

I went outside and saw a car parked in front of my house. The car seemed familiar. — I went outside and saw a car parked in front of my house. The car seemed familiar to me.

• When it is clear from the context or situation that which one exactly person or thing we are talking about.

I'm going to the supermarket. — I'm going to the supermarket (the one where I usually go).

Could you open the window? — Please open the window (the window in this room).

• When we talk about a person or thing, one of a kind.

The Moon revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit. — The Moon revolves around the Earth in an elliptical orbit.

• With adjectives in excellent degrees.

You are the best mom ever! - You are the best mother.

5. With many expressions with of.

In the middle of the night

At the end of my holiday

The and absence of article

The is used in the following cases:

• In the names of countries that are formed using the plural, or in which there are words kingdom or Republic.

the United Arab Emirates, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom

• With the names of everything related to water: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits (except for the names of individual lakes, which are used without an article)

the Baltic Sea, the British Channel, the Pacific Ocean, the Persian Gulf

• With the names of mountain ranges (the names of individual mountain peaks are used without an article).

the Alps, the Apennines

• With names of parts of the day.

in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening

• With many prepositions of place and time.

on the right, at the bottom

The article is not used in the following cases:

• With the names of most countries, cities and continents

Asia, Saudi Arabia, Beijing

• With the names of individual mountain peaks and lakes

Mountblanc, Lake Titicaca

• With exact indications of day, month and time

on Monday, at nine o"clock, in July

• With some prepositional phrases of place

at work, at home, in bed

School, university, hospital, prison, church, etc.

Compare:

1. Tim is studying maths at university. — Tim is studying mathematics at the university.

There is a large park not far from the university. — Not far from the university there is a large park.

2. He won't be in hospital for two weeks. — He will be in the hospital for two weeks.

Is there a chemist's shop in the hospital? — Is there a pharmacy in the hospital?

3. The kids go to school by bus. — Children go to school by bus.

There was a fire at the school last year — Last year there was a fire at the school.

If someone is in school/hospital/prison, etc., because he is a student/patient/prisoner, then the article not used.

If someone is in a school/hospital/prison for some other reason, or if we mean a building, then it is used the.

How well do you know this grammatical topic?

Test yourself! You can find all online tests on the rules for using articles.

What does the particle to mean before verbs? Do you know the answer to this question?

Most people learning English don't even think about it. That's why they make mistakes by using this particle before each verb. When should it be used?

In this article I will answer this question and explain to you when you need to put to before verbs and when not.

What does the particle to mean and when is it used?

In English we use the particle to before the initial (indefinite) form of the verb. The initial form of a verb is a form that does not tell us who will perform the actions and when.

Infinitive verbs answer the question “what to do?” and “what to do?” For example:

(what to do?) to write - write;
(what to do?) to see - to see.

In English we call the infinitive form of a verb infinitive.

How do we understand that this is an infinitive?

In Russian, we understand that we have a verb in the indefinite form at the end TH: skaz t, rice t, call t. In English, the endings of words do not change.

And here it comes to our aid particle to, which serves precisely as an indicator, which in Russian is the ending TH. That is, if we see a particle to before a verb, we can safely say that this verb is in the indefinite form: to say, to paint to call.

If you look at the particle to and pronounce it, you will see that it is VERY similar to Russian TH, but only at the beginning of a sentence.

I want to call my sister.
I want (what to do?) call t to my sister.

I forgot to give him his book.
I forgot (what to do?) yes t him his book.

I will go to swim tomorrow.
I'll go (what to do?) swim t Tomorrow.

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When do we not put the particle to before infinitive verbs?

There are exceptions to every rule. Let's look at them:

1. When a verb is preceded in an indefinite form by a verb that expresses not an action, but a possibility, necessity, ability.

In English we call such verbs modal: can (can), may (I can), must (must), need(necessary), should(should). After them we do not use the particle to.

I can run fast.
I can run fast.

You must tell me the truth.
You must tell me the truth.

He should be more careful.
He should be more careful.

True, there are several modal verbs that must be used with the particle to: have to (need), oughtto(should).

They have to work hard.
They have to work hard.

She ought to help me.
She must help me.

2. After the verb let (give, let).

Let's me know how you are.
Let me know how you are.

Let's him say.
Let him speak.

3. After the verb make if we use it meaning "to force".

You make me think about it.
He made me think about it.

He makes me smile.
He makes me smile.

4. If in one sentence there are two verbs in the indefinite form and between them there is and or or (or), then we do not put the particle to before the second verb.

I want to sing and dance.
I want to sing and dance.

I don't know to cry or laugh.
I don't know whether to cry or laugh.

The difference between the particle to and the preposition to in English

It is very important not to confuse particle to With preposition to. Even though they sound and spell the same, they are actually two different words.

Particle to we use it with a verb in its initial form.

Preposition to we use with nouns. To this preposition we can ask the question “Where?” Let's look at a few examples.

Particle to

I like (what to do?) to read interesting books.
I like (what to do?) cheat t interesting books.

I want to meet my friends.
I want (what to do?) meet t with my friends.

Preposition to

I go (where?) to the cinema today.
I'll go (where?) V cinema today.

Every day I go to my work.
Every day I go (where?) on work.

Together now

I want (what to do?) to drink the water so I go (where?) to the kitchen.

I want (what to do?) bittern t water, so I went (where?) on kitchen.

When asking a question, we can easily determine whether it is a particle or a preposition.

Summarize

1. We put the particle to before verbs in the initial form (infinitive).

2. There are exceptions when we do not use a particle: after modal verbs (see above), after the verbs let and make, when in a sentence 2 verbs are connected by the preposition and/or (see above).

3. The particle to is used with verbs, and the preposition to is used with nouns. These are different words.

4. How to check whether the to particle should be used or not? To do this, we ask the question “what to do?”, “what to do?”. If these questions sound logical, then we put to before the verb.

Think about it.
(Do what?) Think about it.

I want to think about it.
I want to (do what?) think about it.

I hope now you won’t be confused about where you need to put the to particle and where you shouldn’t. If you have any questions, ask them in the comments below the article.

Reinforcement task

Now let's check how well you understand where the to particle should be placed and where not. Put the verb in brackets into the correct form. Don't forget about exceptions.

For example: “She will go (play) tennis. - She will go to play tennis."

1. My sister can (run) fast.
2. (Look) at this picture.
3. I want (cook) dinner.
4. Let him (help) you.
5. My friend forgot (call) me.
6. She decided (sell) her car.
7. He made me (buy) it.
8. You may (sit down) here.
9. I can (bring) your book.
10. We like (eat) sweets.
11. They should (write) it.
12. She wanted (drink) and (eat).

As always, write your answers in the comments. I'll definitely check them out.

In English there is a certain attitude towards “no” words. They accompany verbs and nouns; they can be found in the group of adverbs, particles, and pronouns. We decided to collect the most popular and frequent negatives in the English language so that you can get to know this special “negative” group.

When using the Negatives, you should remember one important rule: leave only one negative in English in a simple sentence. Analogies with the Russian language will only get in the way here:

Nobody has ever done this.

In a Russian sentence we see three negatives at once - the pronoun no one, the adverb never, the verb did not do. In English this situation is unacceptable.
The first translation that comes to mind is the translation using “nobody”:

No one has ever done it.

However, there are more ways to form a negative. This sentence can also be translated as:

• People have never done it.
• People haven't ever done it.

So, we have collected for you the top 5 “no” words, the knowledge of which will expand your language capabilities.

Negative particle Not

Truly the most common way to express negation in English is by using the particle not with verbs. Modal verbs, forms to be, have got, will add this particle after themselves:

You mustn’t ever be late. - You should never be late.

Haven’t you got any respect for these people? -You have no respect for these people at all?

In the case of weak verbs in English, the particle not joins the auxiliary verb don’t/ doesn’t/ didn’t:

It didn't disappear anywhere. The knife is on the table. - He hasn't disappeared anywhere. Knife on the table.

Particle into Russian not is translated as “not” and is used mainly with verbs.

Negative word No

The English word “no” is practically not inferior to the first negative in terms of frequency of use. In a sentence, it most often comes before the noun that negates:

I have no money. - I have no money.

The tourists see no danger. - Tourists do not see any danger.

You should not translate sentences word by word. Use euphonious phrases that won’t hurt your ears. You are unlikely to hear this translation:

Tourists see there is no danger.

Unless an electronic translator can please you with such original passages from time to time.

Negative No+word

We decided to present this group as a separate category. Here you will find compound words. The English language allows you to combine, which you use so happily no:

• no one/ nobody - no one

No one knows her name. She opens it to nobody. - Nobody knows her name. She doesn't reveal it to anyone.

• nothing - nothing

Nothing can change my mind. - Nothing will change my mind.

• nowhere - nowhere

Where is the ring? I can find it nowhere. - Where is the ring? I can't find it anywhere.

Many of these “conjunctions” are so tightly integrated into the structure of the language that they are not perceived as no+noun. These are stable expressions such as:

no way- no way, where is the first meaning way- "way"
nonsense- nonsense, where sense means “reason”, “sense”
none of- none of, none of
no matter what/ no matter who/ no matter when/ etc.- no matter what/no matter who/no matter where/and so on.

Negative adverb Never

Adverb never translated into Russian “never”:

I will never forget your kindness. - I will never forget your kindness.

Like other representatives of “negativism,” it not only fully forms a negation in an English sentence, but also actively attaches other words to itself, forming new facets of negations:

nevertheless- despite, however, nevertheless
never mind- forget it, don't think about it
never-to-be-forgotten- unforgettable
never-ending- endless
etc. - and so on

Negative word neither

The English word closes our top five neither, which, depending on its function in a sentence, can be a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. In any case, its single meaning is “no one”, “neither of”, “neither one nor the other”.

Neither of you is invited. - None of you are invited.

This word also appears in combination neither ..., nor - neither one nor the other.

Neither Davis, nor Parker lived in Paris. - Neither Davis nor Parker lived in Paris.

In conclusion, we would like to remind you once again that only one negation can be present within a simple English sentence. Of course, in colloquial speech, in songs, in films, you can encounter a violation of the rule, but this is rather an exception.

We wish you positive things in learning English!

Victoria Tetkina